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UTILITARIANISM-
What is Jeremy Bentham’s quantitive hedonistic utilitarianism/the utility calculus?
aims to promote happiness
happiness/pleasure is the supreme ethical value
an act is right if it delivers more pleasure than pain
Happiness= pleasure minus pain
it’s like a cost benefit analysis of happiness
calculates more utile action
UTILITARIANISM-
What is meant by utility, and maximising utility?
utility= action that causes the pleasure, beneficial to people
maximising utility= carrying out the actions that cause the maximum pleasure for the maximum people
UTILITARIANISM-
What is the utility principle and how does it apply to the utility calculus?
maximum pleasure for the maximum people
used in calculus by weighing up the amount of pleasure and pain is produced by an action and select the action that is the most utile
UTILITARIANISM-
What is Mill’s quantitive hedonistic utilitarianism/higher and lower pleasures?
pleasure+freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends
a life of pleasures is a life of pigs
incorrect as a life of pleasures gives more value to higher pleasures
we can only give more value to higher pleasures if they’re more permanent, healthy, higher quality etc.
higher pleasures are preferred by people who experience both higher and lower pleasures
human’s natural dignity leads them to prefer higher pleasures
better to have a capacity for higher pleasures and be unsatisfied than only capacity for lower pleasures and be satisfied
UTILITARIANISM-
What is Mill’s “proof“ of the greatest happiness principle?
the only proof of something being desirable is if it is desired
happiness is desired
happiness is therefore desirable
if an individuals happiness is desirable then the general happiness is desirable
therefore, happiness is the only thing desired for its own sake
consequently, an action is right if it maximises happiness for the greatest number of people
from desired to desirable
only evidence that something is visible is if it can be seen
only evidence that something is desirable is if it is desired
each person desires their own happiness
therefore, each persons happiness is desirable (implied by 2,3)
UTILITARIANISM-
What is preference utilitarianism?
Preference= each action that I take should maximise the fulfilment of people’s preferences
avoids pleasure drug problems because it’s not the people’s preference
avoids social engineering problems
clearly identifies people’s preferences
differs to classical utilitarianism because it allows “morally wrong” actions to be taken, such as lying, because it’s the preference of the public to know the truth
UTILITARIANISM-
What is hedonism vs non-hedonism vs psychological hedonism?
Hedonism=
moral theory that claims for each individual, pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain is the right thing to do, they ought to seek it
Psychological Hedonism=
descriptive theory of human motivation, claiming that the aims of an individual’s action are to avoid pain and seek pleasure
UTILITARIANISM-
What is rule utilitarianism?
if everyone followed the rules I follow, it should maximise the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people
squareabout example:
everyone doesn’t know how to use a squareabout, so they make their own decision on how to use it
if every roundabout is replaced by a squareabout, no rule would be in place to prevent people from crashing
contrasts to how there are rules for roundabouts where there are very few indicents as a result
UTILITARIANISM
What are the differences between a strong and weak rule utilitarian?
Weak rule utilitarian
argues we should make exceptions to rules in maximising utility
argues we should break the rule to not lie to avoid the axe murderer murdering our mother
Strong rule utilitarian
argues we should follow the rules in every counter intuitive case, actions follow rules, which gives them moral worth
they would not lie to the axe murderer
UTILITARIANISM-
What is act utilitarianism?
P1- actions are morally right/wrong depending on their consequences, so an action is right if it maximises good consequences
P2- the only thing that’s good is happiness/pleasure, or the absence of pain
C1- an action is right if it maximises the amount of happiness
P3- nobody’s happiness counts more than anyone else’s
C2- an action is right if it maximises the amount of happiness for the greatest number of people
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES-
What are objections to Mill’s proof of the utility principle?
two senses of desirable
is-ought gap from desired to desirable
naturalistic fallacy with desirability
fallacy of composition
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES-
What is Nozick’s experience machine?
hypothetical machine that would give you any desired experience
brain would be stimulated in such a way that every desired experience would seem real
you do not physically do these actions, you are in a tank
others may also enter the same machines so you do not have to serve them
do you enter?
Challenges utilitarianism because:
humans desire to physically carry out actions, not just experience doing them
people who plug in are committing a form of suicide, because there is nothing left except for pleasure, our time and experience is no longer meaningful
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES-
What is the formal arguments for Nozick’s experience machine?
P1- if happiness is the only good (only thing that is good for it’s own sake) then act or rule utilitarianism is true
P2- if happiness is the only good (all other goods are only good because of happiness) then people wouldn’t have reason to go into the machine
P3- people do not have reason to get in the machine
C1- therefore happiness is not the only good
C2- therefore utilitarianism is not true
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES-
What is the tyranny of the majority?
greatest happiness for the greatest number of people
applies even if it affects other people, as long as they’re not the majority
implies that the majority has power over the minority if the majorities pleasure is greater
leads to exploitation of minorities, since the pleasure of the majority is favoured
this can affect the politics of race, gender, sexuality, bodily autonomy, rights, slavery etc.
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES-
What is utilitarianism’s three criticisms with calculation?
Criticism 1: It is impossible to compare pleasures on the same scale.
can you compare curing cancer to eating chocolate cake?
Criticism 2: is quantity of pleasure the only factor, does the quality of pleasure matter more, how long the pleasure lasts?
does the pleasure of eating chocolate cake equate to the same quality of pleasure as curing cancer?
Criticism 3: the moral quality of an action depends on the motive, it could be carried out maliciously.
something that causes pleasure could have poor intentions behind it, ie. donating to a charity to avoid scandal publicity vs donating because of goodness
psychological hedonism is false, not everyone is motivated by happiness because of self-sacrifice
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES-
What is utilitarianism’s issue of partiality?
utilitarianism expects us to put aside our personal feelings and desire to do anything otherwise
if a person is negatively impacted psychologically by doing an action, then it is relevant
our personal feelings are only one point of data in the calculation
humans are partial to their own values, and cannot be expected to put their values and feelings aside for the maximum happiness
Mill tries to respond saying people aren’t able to help the majority so we should try to in our own lives
is a now outdated argument because we now have charities
Peter singer argued experiments of children growing up without families didn’t work well, so perhaps the happiness we gain from family is worth the partiality
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES-
What is utilitarianism’s issue of moral integrity?
utilitarianism requires that we treat our own motives as abstract and external
yielding happiness values to be calculated amongst others
doesn’t respect the fact that your actions are your own and express the values you hold
therefore, utilitarianism doesn’t understand or respect integrity
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES-
What are the objections to Mill’s higher/lower pleasures?
No longer hedonism, not lead by the maximum happiness for the most people, lead by the quality of happiness for the most people
Utilitarianism loses it’s simplicity because there are now tiers of quality in play
Cultural snobbery
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES:
What are the objections to act and rule utilitarianism?
maximising general happiness leads to highly morally counter-intuitive results, actions that seem clearly wrong
strong rule utilitarianism does not account for the counter intuitive cases
rule utilitarianism is challenged by the counter intuitive cases where following a rule seems wrong
weak rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism, because exceptions are made in favour of maximum utility
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES:
What objections are there to preference utilitarianism?
bad and crazy preferences
to prefer to die over something trivial
god’s own drug addict
preferences from a distance
weighing up preferences
is the preference of protestors you could join worth more than the preference of a terminally ill friend?
UTILITARIANISM ISSUES:
What the problem of intentions?
utilitarianism claims that an action is right if it leads to the greatest happiness
it therefore doesn’t recognise the moral value of our intentions in acting as we do
‘it is the thought that counts’
intention behind an action makes a big difference to how we respond to their action
hurting someone on purpose rather than by accident should be as important as the consequence of them getting hurt
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What is Kant’s account of “good will”?
a good will is one which has the right intention when performing moral actions
the only good thing that is good without qualification is a good will
talent, intelligence, wit, etc. are not good in nature because the intent behind them depends on character
ie, the coolness of a villain is more dangerous than if they were outwardly malicious
things that create happiness are not good because they can result in pride, arrogance, etc.
KANTIAN ETHICS:
What is Kant’s argument for the claim that the purpose of human reason is the creation of good will?
P1- everything in nature is perfectly adapted to its function
C1- human reason must also then be perfectly adapted to its function
P2- the function of human reason cannot be to produce happiness since instinct would be better for that purpose
P3- using reason to achieve happiness is bound to fail
C2- the purpose of reason is to create a will that is good in itself
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What is acting:
a) in accordance with duty
b) out of duty
we should do things for duty’s sake, for the sake of good will regardless of our personal feelings or desires
To have a duty is to be required to act in a certain way out of respect for (moral) law
a) in accordance= carrying out an action which is what duty requires of you, but with ulterior motives aside from dutiful motivation
to do your duty as a shopkeeper by lowering prices, but to gain more customers
b) out of duty= acting out of the motivation to carry out your duty
to carry out your duty as a shopkeeper by lowering prices for fairness between customers
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What is the hypothetical imperative?
(imperative=command)
IF……THEN statements
IF I intend/will x THEN I should perform action y
statements about what we intend/will to happen
not desiring/wanting is not the same as willing it
ie. I may want a cookie tomorrow, but I don’t will it
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What does Kant argue is an analytic truth?
Kant argues that willing the ends entails willing the means, this is an analytic truth, that someone who wills the ends, wills the means
KANTIAN ETHICS:
What is a maxim?
A principal of action
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What is the first formulation of the categorical imperative (universal law formulation)?
**“**Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”
moral duties are not hypothetical, they are what ought to be done and aren’t a means to an end
good will is the only thing that can be considered an unqualified good
good will is one that acts FROM DUTY
to have duty is to be required to act in a certain way, respecting the moral law
moral law is discovered by whether the action can or cannot be universalised
(tests whether you can rationally will that everyone does what you want to do, or if there’s a contradiction)
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What are contradictions in conception?
contradiction in conception:
the situation in which everyone acted on that maxim is somehow self-contradictory
eg, theft
maxim of “I will steal when I want to”
leads to the destruction of private property
if there is no private property, there is nothing to steal, and is therefore self-contradictory
Actions which follow from contradictions in conception generally involve negative actions and are called PERFECT DUTIES
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What are contradictions in will?
contradiction in will:
we cannot rationally will a situation in which it would be impossible for us to achieve our ends
in doing so is to cease to will the necessary means to one’s ends, which is effectively to cease to will any ends at all
this contradicts the very act of willing
eg, refusal to help
everyone has some actions that depend on the help of others that they will (intend to accomplish)
acting on the maxim to “never help others” is willing that you’ll be unable to achieve your goals
goes against your nature as a rational agent
Actions which follow from contradictions in the will generally involve positive actions and are called IMPERFECT DUTIES
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What is the difference between a universalisable maxim and non-universalisable maxim?
Universalisable maxim:
an action that you carry out, and everyone else is also able to carry out, it becomes universal law
Non-universalisable maxim:
action that can be carried out by yourself, but if everyone carried out said action, it would be contradictory
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What is the humanity formulation of the categorical imperative?
“Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end”**
Treating people as ends is wrong, as in:
involving you in an action that you do not (in principle) have a chance to consent to
Kant only forbids treating someone as an end
In daily life, we have to treat people as means to an end since either side profits:
ie. asking a shop assistant for a product.
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What argument does Kant give for why the two formulations of the categorical imperative are equivalent?
implication of respect involved in the 1st formulation
each human has a way of making their own moral laws
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What are imperfect duties?
Imperfect duties are moral obligations that are not always binding
do not have a specific action attached to them
duties that we should strive to fulfil, but are not required to do so in every circumstance
eg. improving oneself, and promoting the common good
KANTIAN ETHICS-
What are perfect duties?
perfect duties are moral obligations
must always be followed, without exception
these duties are considered to be universal and apply to all individuals in all situations
eg, duty to not lie, the duty to not harm others, and the duty to keep promises
KANTIAN ETHICS:
What are the key concepts of moral law?
The moral law is experienced through the moral sense of conscience.
The moral law is internal, intrinsic to us, not given from outside
The moral law is a rational will, impartial and universal
The moral law is the basic structure of reason
The moral law is the source of human freedom and autonomy
The test of the moral law is universalizability
We are the source of the moral law
KANTIAN ETHICS ISSUES____-
What are the issues posed by clashing/competing duties?
two duties which could not both be done would clash
problem for Kantian ethics because he claims that our reason can figure out what our actual objective duty is
this shows Kantian ethics flawed because if the duties clash and one cannot be done, then it can’t be our duty
since the duty was obtained using the categorical imperative, it is a product of Kant’s ethical theory, and is not duty
clashing duties cannot be our duty and thus if Kant’s method of universalisibility and treating people as ends produces maxims that clash, then his method doesn’t actually discover our duty
Eg, the soldier whose duty is to fight at war for his country, but also must look after his sick mother.
Both cannot be done but are universalisable, neither involve treating people as a means and are in turn his duty, so they clash.
KANTIAN ETHICS ISSUES____-
What are the objections to clashing/competing duties made by Kant?
if we think there are clashing duties, we are haven’t used our reason properly
there is only one way of fulfilling perfect duties and multiple ways to fulfil imperfect duties
we have a perfect duty to tell the truth, the only other way is to avoid lying
in the case of the soldier, there are multiple ways in which these duties could be fulfilled
pay for someone else to look after your sick family member, or help the country’s war effort while remaining at home
it is possible to fulfil both duties because they are imperfect
KANTIAN ETHICS ISSUES____-
What are the problems in relation to universalisable maxims?
Not all non-universalisable maxims are immoral
eg, a rich person wants to donate money to charity
seems to be a good thing but not everyone can donate a lot of money to charity
Not all universalisable maxims are distinctly moral
eg, if someone decided they wanted to steal
they edited their maxim from ‘I can steal’ to ‘someone with 6 letters in their name can steal’
maxim could be universalised because only a minority of people could still steal
so the concept of private property would still be in place and only be undermined by a few people
KANTIAN ETHICS ISSUES____-
What is the problem posed by the value of consequences?
is duty the only thing of moral value?
value of other motives- care:
feminist critique of both Kantianism and Utilitarianism
emphasis both systems place on reasoning from an abstract, neutral viewpoint
highlights the adoption of a dispassionate approach in how we assess our concern for different humans, represents 'male' patterns of ethical thought
it claims that women pay more attention to the subjectivity of situations, and on care and concern for others
eg, it is a more female trait to lie about holding a Jewish refugee during ww2 in Germany
Kant responds, saying you’re your own rational agent and responsible for your decisions, and lying to prevent a Nazi from killing them is to act as though you were responsible for the consequences of the Nazi’s action- you cannot control responses/consequences
It can be argued that we are responsible for other’s actions:
Kant pictures a human being as a rational agent who responsible only for what they do
overlooks the social influences and constructs
we have a deep connection to others and therefore feel responsible
we can control consequences to a degree, so shouldn’t we be responsible for them?
KANTIAN ETHICS ISSUES____-
What is the problem posed by the value of certain motives?
Bernard Williams claims it is inhuman and ethically wrong to suggest that moral judgement should be free from emotion
Kantian ethics therefore recommends it is therefore immoral
eg, giving money to charity because you feel empathy for suffering people seems like a moral act, but Kantian ethics deems it as immoral
Objection-
Kant argues that something is either right or wrong regardless of how a person may feel about it
believing it is morally good to give money to charity out of empathy is still committing to the claim that the goodness of the act consists in their feelings of empathy
the deservedness of the receiver is not dependent on the empathy of the donator
therefore Kant argues the goodness of their act isn’t dependent on their feelings, and acting out of feelings is failing to act morally
Counter-
Arguably impossible in practice
we can’t act without any influence of emotion
Kant’s ethics bay be good in abstract theory, but won’t work in practice given the fact that we are emotional beings
This is argued by Hume
KANTIAN ETHICS ISSUES____-
Why does the idea that morality is a system of hypothetical imperatives as opposed to categorical an issue?
Phillippa Foot:
argues morality is a system of hypothetical imperatives instead of categorical
hypothetical imperatives are dependent on the ends chosen
if you want Y, you should do X
categorical imperatives are duties regardless of our ends, etc.
Kant’s ethics depends on the claim that reason can discover the categorical imperative
concludes that it’s only rational to act on maxims that you can rationally will everyone to act on
irrational to act on non-universalizable maxims
Foot argues Kant is wrong about what makes an action rational
that action is only irrational when:
‘a man acts in such a way which undermines his own ends’
it’s therefore rational for one to act in a way they do not intend others to, so long as they don’t undermine their own ends
ie. we have chosen our own ends (hypothetical imperatives)
Kant’s theory fails because a fundamental premise of the theory fails – that morality is based on a categorical imperative
UTILITARIANISM
What is Kant’s defence against Phillipa Foot’s objection?
Kant’s defence-
reason tells us that we are rational agents and other humans are rational agents too
we are all equal
if reason tells us we are all equal in that we all have reason, then how could non-universalizable maxims be made consistent with reason?
doing what everyone cannot do to be rational, I would have to think there is something special about me and my ends
no rational basis for thinking that
arguably Kant is right that there is this link between reason and the categorical imperative and therefore, arguably his account of rationality is correct