AP PSYCH Semester Exam

Hypothesis

A proposed, testable explanation for a phenomenon.

Null Hypothesis

A statement predicting that there is no significant relationship.

Independent Variable

The variable that the researcher manipulates in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The effect or outcome that is measured in an experiment, changed by the independent variable.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment.

Single-blind

A study design where individuals do not know which group they are in.

Double-blind

A study design where both researchers and participants do not know which group participants are in.

Placebo

A substance with no therapeutic effect used as a control in testing new drugs.

Experimenter Bias

Unconscious beliefs or expectations of researchers that influence the outcome of the experiment.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have foreseen it.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one's abilities or knowledge.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to groups by chance to ensure each group is similar.

Random Sample

A group of subjects that accurately reflects the population from which it was drawn.

Operational Definitions

Precise statements that outline how variables are measured in a study.

Social Desirability

The tendency of individuals to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably.

Self-report Bias

When individuals report their behaviors inaccurately.

Correlational Studies

Research methods that examine the relationship between two or more variables without manipulation.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where variables move in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where variables move in different directions.

Correlational Coefficients

Values that indicate the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1.

Case Studies

In-depth examinations of a single individual or small group.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistical methods that summarize and organize data.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical methods used to determine differences between groups and draw conclusions.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance; often set at P < .05.

Falsifiable

Capable of being disproved.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a study.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in real-world settings without manipulation.

Sampling Bias

When a sample is not representative of the population.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores to return to their average.

Informed Consent

Ethical principle ensuring participants are adequately informed about a study before agreeing to participate.

Debriefing

An explanation provided to participants at the end of a study.

Meta-analysis

A study of studies that combines the results of multiple studies.

Scientific Attitude

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility in scientific inquiry.

Glial Cells

Cells that provide support, protection, and nourishment to neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle action, learning, and memory.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, emotion, and addiction.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal during fight or flight.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain and pleasure.

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system that regulate behaviors.

Neurons

Cells responsible for transmitting information throughout the nervous system.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

Axon

The long, thin fiber of a neuron that carries electrical signals from the cell body.

Synapses

Tiny gaps between neurons where neurotransmitters are released for communication.

Depolarization

The brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron's axon.

Refractory Period

A brief resting period after a neuron has fired, during which it cannot fire again.

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it is ready to fire after being recharged.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles for voluntary movement.

Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The principle stating that neurons either fire or do not fire.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord, which process and integrate information.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the PNS that controls involuntary functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that triggers the fight or flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that promotes rest and digest functions.

Cerebral Cortex

The outermost layer of the brain responsible for higher-order cognitive functions.

Limbic System

A set of brain structures involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.

Hippocampus

A brain structure important for the formation and consolidation of new memories.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in processing emotional responses and memories.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory relay station that processes inputs from various senses.

Corpus Callosum

The bundle of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A technique for measuring and mapping brain activity through blood flow.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A technique for imaging metabolic processes in the body.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A method of recording electrical activity in the brain.

Circadian Rhythm

The natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and other bodily functions.

REM Sleep

A sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movement and high brain activity, associated with vivid dreams.

NREM Sleep

A stage of sleep that precedes REM sleep and consists of three stages.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder marked by persistent difficulties in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Phantom Limb Syndrome

The sensation of pain or presence in an amputated limb.

Vestibular Sense

The sense that helps maintain balance and spatial orientation.

Kinesthetic Sense

The awareness of body position and movement.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus energies from our environment.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Transduction

The conversion of physical signals from the environment into neural signals.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection.

Subliminal

Referring to stimuli below the threshold of conscious awareness.

Sensory Adaptation

The diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a consequence of constant exposure.

Top-Down Processing

Processing that begins with our thoughts, expectations, or prior knowledge.

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing that begins with the sensory input.

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Signal Detection Theory

The theory that the detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the psychological state of the observer.

Visual System

The components and processes involved in the perception of visual stimuli.

Auditory System

The parts of the body involved in the sense of hearing.

Chemical Senses

The senses of taste and smell that are based on chemical interactions.

Gestalt Principles

Ways that our brain organizes visual information into groups or unified wholes.

Cognitive Bias

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own thinking processes.

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategies that allow for efficient judgments.

Cognition

The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Memory

The storage and retrieval of information over time.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system.