HHRI shorter version

Development definition

Achieving a higher quality of life for all people through economic development, social development and environmental protection, which are all interdependent

Types/measures of development

• Economic → GDP/GNI, FDI, trade, industrial sectors

• Social → HDI, education, healthcare, equality, sanitation

• Demographic → pop size/growth/age

• Cultural → art, music, film, religion, language, food

• Political → democracy, autocracy, freedom of speech

LDCs

→ first decided by UN to determine who needs aid urgently

• behind in several aspects of dev = less resilient

  • poorest economies

  • civil conflict

• 1 bil people, 46 countries

  • 33 Africa, 9 Asia, 3 Pacific, 1 Caribbean

  • similar trend to Brandt Line

• e.g. Ethiopia, Myanmar, HAITI

LEDCs

• low levels of development

• mainly primary industry

• e.g. Kenya

OPEC

• 60% proven oil reserves

  • wealth from oil not always translated into sustained economic growth

• wealth/gender inequality sometimes issue

  • elites who own industries have the wealth

• e.g. Saudi Arabia, UAE

RIC

• rapid develop 1980s-90s

• e.g. Russia, Brazil

NIC

• rapidly developed 1960s-70s

• 3 billion people live in NICs

• high levels of growth (replacing MEDCs as engines of global economy)

• e.g. Asian Tigers (China, India)

  • development follows flying geese

MEDCs

• wealthiest countries → dominated global economy past 50 years

• some legacy superpowers (industrial revolution/imperial)

• mainly tertiary/quaternary sector

• e.g. USA, UK, Japan

Brandt Line

‘rich north, poor south’

• designed to create action from wealthier countries to reduce wealth inequality

• BUT ended up as an excuse for exploitation in the ‘poor south’ (dependency theory) + lack of social reform

• false dichotomy: too simplistic only focusing on wealth + out of date

Western Ideas on Development

Eurocentric (Western)

• Focussing on equal rights, democracy, and capitalism seen as successful in promoting development since historically western countries have been and are leading in economic/political significance

• BUT some govs don’t want to adopt Western governance and values → may go against traditions and culture (Western-Northern hegemony)

  • Escobar’s view → plus thinks development + dev aid should be empowerment and community participation (grassroots approach - would be slower but more sustainable)

Rosling’s View

Social/Environmental Focus

→ improvements in environmental quality, health, life expectancy and human rights are more significant goals for development; economic growth only means of delivering them

Example: Some Asian Tigers

• South Korea/China saw large drops in infant mortality before rapid economic growth (improved human capital)

Sharia Law

→ Social focus

→ Model of non-secular governance

• The law of Islam

• Muslims believe God is showing them the way to happiness based on the fulfilment of:

  o Necessities: preservation of religion, life, intellect, lineage, and wealth

  o Comforts: things sought to ensure a good life and avoid hardship, though not essential

• → This recognises wider aspects through this, such as the importance of investing in human capital (e.g., education and intellect)

• Severity of implementation contested

  • Saudi Arabia one of the strictest → controversy over gender inequality and having the death penalty

    o   BUT due to their oil wealth they’re still central in the world’s economy

Bolivia under Evo Morales

Environmental focus

Morales inherited many issues when he came to power:

• Economic: high inflation, selling of state assets and high levels of poverty

• Social: exclusion of indigenous people from the political system (he is indigenous - Aymara)

Morales values communal ownership and cooperation due to his socialist and traditional Andean values

Changes under Morales:

• Renationalised Bolivia’s oil and gas industries with the revenue funding public works projects and social programmes to combat poverty = extreme poverty reduced by 43%

• Lead creation of the 2009 Constitution focused on the Law of Mother Earth (Gaia Theory)

  • government’s duty is to protect Mother Nature by reduced resource consumption and removal of all weapons of mass destruction

  • ‘nature-first’

• BUT still one of South America’s poorest countries + still dependent on natural resources for economic growth

How much did extreme poverty reduce under Morales?

43%

Happy Planet Index

Relationship between quality of life and levels of wealth complex

→ composite indicator

Considers life expectancy, life satisfaction, ecological footprint etc

2019 Data:

Best: Costa Rica (62.1)

Worst: Qatar (152^nd, 24.3)

USA: 122^nd

^{→ scores so low due to its consumerist, capitalist model not being sustainable}

China: 94^th

HDI

→ composite indicator (e.g. life expectancy, infant/maternal mortality rate, years in school)

2021 Data:

Best: Switzerland

Worst: South Sudan (191^st)

USA: 21^st

^{→ good but likely not best due to healthcare not being free}

China: 79^th

Gini Coefficient

→ measures income equality

2023 Data:

• Best: Slovakia (23.2)

• Worst: South Africa (63)

• USA (42)

• China (38)

A higher score on the Gini coefficient means that a country is more unequal

• 100 is complete inequality - 1 person in the country has all the money

• 1 is perfect equality - everyone has the same amount of money

Role of education in economic development

→ education is central to economic development by increasing value of human capital

→ view not universally shared = variation

Skilled workforces attract more FDI

How can education help with poverty?

→ better education helps break the cycle of poverty as higher wage jobs can be accessed with greater skill

No Education (2020):

• Africa = 22% (BUT improved from 59% in 1970)

• North America = 0%

Post Secondary (2020):

• Africa = 9%

• North America = 24%

Gender inequality in education

Occurs in education where boys are valued over girls

54% world’s non-schooled population are girls

→ Sub-Saharan Africa

low income + education often paid = boys prioritised

• primary completion: 72% boys vs 66% girls

→ Middle East

poverty + boys often valued over girls for religious/cultural reasons

• primary completion: 93% boys vs 87% girls

→ Afghanistan

education system devastated by 3 decades of conflict and natural disasters = general low primary completion (and now Taliban rules on girls no longer being able to have a secondary education)

but worse for girls due to traditional norms of women’s role in society (e.g. marrying young) + lack of female teachers esp. rural

• only 16% schools girls-only and many have poor sanitation, further reducing attendance

• 17% girls marry before 15 years old

• natural disasters: floods, earthquakes, landslides (= parental concern for safety if send to school)

What % of the world’s non-schooled population are girls?

54% world’s non-schooled population are girls

Health and life expectancy in the UK

→ life expectancy no longer increasing (unlike other developed economies (unlike other developed economies such as Hong Kong)

→ is becoming more equal, however

• men: 79.4

• women: 83.0

Wider Determinants

→ occupation, education, income, housing (links to deprivation)

• Rising wealth inequality

  • wealthiest in Kensington/Chelsea live 16 years longer than lowest income

  • partly due to cost of living crisis

• Lack of affordable housing + varying quality

  • black mould + issues with landlords not taking responsibility = Manchester rent strikes

Preventative Healthcare

→ immunisation, education on healthcare, technologies (e.g. pacemakers)

• cuts to government spending on NHS and education (due to 2008 financial crisis and covid-19 + Tories)

Healthcare and life expectancy in India

→ life expectancy increasing

• 2015: 68.3

• 1990: 58.0

Lifestyle Choices

• non-communicable disease increasing

  • 26.2% die from 4 main (e.g. heart attack, diabetes, cancer) between ages 30-70

  • changes in diet partly reason (globalisation = westernised consumption)

Preventative Healthcare

• very unequal - WHO

  • scored 70 in 2005 on relative inequality for accessing reproductive, maternal, and new-born health interventions

• successful immunisation

• sanitation improvement (but not best)

  • 2015: 94% drinking from improved sources

  • BUT globally ¼ improved water contaminated with faeces

Health and life expectancy Australia

→ life expectancy high for non-indigenous population (83 avg.) BUT inequality for ATSI people

Wider Determinants

→ differences in income/employment for ATSI communities compared to non-indigenous population

• in remote areas (decreased access to healthcare services)

• historic discrimination

  • no legal right to housing/education

  • children taken to live with white Australians = lack of trust in authorities (inc. healthcare professionals)

  = life expectancy on avg. 17 years lower

Lifestyle Choices

• 44% over ATSI people over the age of 15 smoke (2.6x the amount of non-indigenous) as part of culture

  • more at risk of non-communicable disease such as cancer

MDGs - Develop a global partnership for development

• Successful goal

• Goal 8

• → All target met/excellent progress or good progress

  • Official development assistance from developed countries increased by 66% 2000-2014, reaching $135.2 billion

  • Proportion of external debt revenue in developing countries fell from 12% in 2000 to 3% in 2013

    • e.g. Malawi

  • Internet conver increased from 6% of all people in 2000 to 43% in 2015

  .+ due to globalisation +.

  • Improved technology (e.g. mobile phones, faster internet, social media)

  • Increased international agreements (inc. trade)

MDGs - Reduce child mortality

• Goal 4

• Successful goal

• target met/excellent progress, good progress, and only 1 fair progress

• global under-5 mortality rate has declined by over 50%, despite population growth in developing regions

  • improved preventative healthcare

    • e.g. 2000-2013 measles vaccine helped prevent 15.6 million deaths + reported cases declined by 67%

MDGs - Promote gender equality and empower women

• Goal 3

• Unsuccessful goal

• Moderate/Good success in education

  • Southern Asia

    • 1990: 74 girls were enrolled in primary school for every 100 boys in 1990

    • 2023: 103 girls are enrolled for every 100 boys

  → BUT least achievement in equal representation in national parliaments

  • 1 in 5 members of parliament are women

MDGs - Successful region

Southeast Asia

→ education improvements (goal 3)

→ China as a rapidly economically developing country and having increased economic/political ties to other SE Asian countries for trade also increase the whole areas development (can afford greater spending into HD e.g. hospitals)

MDGs - Unsuccessful regions

Oceania

• Only part of Goal 6 (to reduce spread of HIV/AIDS → preventative healthcare) had the target met/excellent progress, mostly fair progress or poor progress/deterioration

Sub-Saharan Africa

• Only 1 target met/excellent progress (halt or reverse HIV/AIDS, Goal 6)

• Poverty makes other goals hard to tackle

SDGs vs MDGs

→ SDGS widened from solely socially focussed to include targets like economic development and environmental action (as also influence HD)

→ Partly due to change in who drafted them:

• MDGs: financial and social experts basing them on the world’s poorest countries

• SDGs: individual UN member states, stakeholders and civil society organizations

-> Different Intentions

• MDGs: lessen or halve the rates of poverty, mortality and other detrimental social occurrences

• SDGs: build upon the previous goals to completely solve these issues

-> SDGs are updated to modern standards

• e.g. equality for all (i.e. all minority groups) whereas MDGs only mention gender equality

UDHR

→ signed 1948 by 48 nations (UN agreement)

AIM: provide common understanding of human rights (30 articles define basic HR and state should be protected by law) for freedom, justice, and peace

= sets international standard + gives ground to campaigners

BUT:

• not legally binding = hard to punish so hard to force change

  • BUT does provide framework for foreign policy to explain economic/military intervention

• not everyone signed

  • USSR: felt didn’t condemn fascism/Nazism enough

  • South Africa: to protect their apartheid system which violates numerous articles - USA would condemn

  • Saudi Arabia: stated violated Sharia Law (Iran agreed UDHR secular understanding, Pakistan challenged them by signing)

• West’s history of colonialism made them a problematic normal representative for the rest of the world

ICC and ICJ

→ system of prosecuting war criminals

ICC: tries individuals

• Radovan Karadzic, found guilty of genocide in Srebrenica = sentenced 40 years in prison

ICJ: tries states

• South Africa’s 2024 ICJ case against Israel

Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam

→ 2000

→ Signed by many countries who believed that the UDHR was too secular/westernised/violated Sharia law

→ members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation support Cairo Declaration instead (e.g. Saudi Arabia and Iran)

ECHR - European Convention of Human Rights

→ 1950

→ Set up by Council of Europe

→ 47 members (inc. 28 EU members)

AIM: to protect basic HR through 14 articles + establish better relations between European countries post-WWII - basically European enforcement of UDHR

= provides framework for countries to more easily implement HR into law

HOW: all member states include in their national law (e.g. UK 1998 as part of Human Rights Act) so cases can first be heard in home country, before European Court

BUT:

• Decreases self-determination

  • undermines national sovereignty by overturning national court hearings

  • if 1 country sets a standard, others may follow (e.g. UK government debating leaving ECHR e.g. Rwanda)

• European Court slow to make decisions

Role of superpowers in UDHR + HR

→ have own agendas and power to implement

Russia:

Refused to sign UDHR as the USSR

Veto in UN Security Council to limit western efforts to advance/protect HR through economic pressure and military intervention

• e.g. protect own interests in Ukraine against western condemnation despite HR violations

USA:

Guantanamo Bay shows how they don’t always follow UDHR

• est. 2002 for ‘enemy combatants’ from 9/11

• Only US know details of what goes on + as hegemony cannot be challenged for HR abuses

• Detained before trialled → only 7/779 convicted (but also don’t know how many of there)

• Failure of UDHR: signatories aided US

  • UK: allowed aircraft to refuel in UK

China:

Publicly reject criticism of political repression of citizens

Offer diplomatic + economic support to HR violators (e.g. Sudan) for own economic interests

HR and implementation of UDHR in NICs and LICs

→ NIC or LIC status may make implementing a framework for protecting HR into law very difficult (lacking political/economic stability)

Brazil

→ use local police use torture, think it’s the best way to maintain law and order

→ if the national gov remove torture they’d need to:

• create well-paid investigatory units to monitor police

• fire police forces and increase salaries of replacements

• overhaul entire judicary system

= people may argue it’s best to use limited resources in a way more likely to help people (e.g. building schools/hospitals)

MDGs - Suriname and Malaria

→ already exceed 2015 target (goal 6)

• malaria rates fell 70% 2001-2006

• action: insecticide-treated bed nets + active case detection + public awareness campaigns

MDGs - Afghanistan and water + sanitation

→ harder to achieve environmental sustainability goal due to continuous conflict (40yrs) and no prospect of resolution

• hardest to provide clean water and safe disposal of waste

  • 80% Afghans drink contaminated water

  • Kabul: one of fastest growing cities (pop 5mil) but only 35 public toilets

MDGs - Tanzania and education

→ abolished school fees 2002 and made schools compulsory for all 7-13yr olds

• = national primary school enrolment was 59% in 2000 → 95.4% in 2010

  • BUT increase in participation not matched with increased in resources = teachers, books, classrooms in short supply = concern over quality of education

    • national tutor-pupil ratio increased from 1:41 2000 → 1:51 2010

  • + BUT rural-urban inequality (true enrolment figure may be 75%)

  • + BUT drop out rates high, especially for girls vulnerable to cultural expectations

MDGs - Nepal and free childbirth

→ introduced 2009

→ helping achieve goals 4 + 5

→ possible with funding from UK Department for International Development for a 5-year Safe Motherhood Programme

→ before:

• 32% childbirths attended by a healthcare worker

• new born died every 20mins

→ after:

• 225,000 women benefit

• 281 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births

India vs China Governance

India:

→ democratic republic and has independent judiciary (separate from gov = increased HR protection)

• GDP per capita: $1,596

• total spending on education: 1-3% of GDP

• total spending on health: 4% GDP

China:

→ socialist republic / authoritarian with no independent judiciary system = corruption more likely (government influence outcomes)

• GDP per capita: $7,593

• total spending on education: 4.3%

• total spending on health: 5.6%

China vs India HR Violations

India:

• ethnic inequality

→ minority groups: indigenous populations are often in remote area (e.g. Adivao’s)

= differences in quality of life such as poor education + access to services

• gender inequality

China:

religious freedom issues

→ Christianity barely tolerated, communist party members must be atheist

→ Buddhism + Islam supressed

• 100,000s native Uighur Muslims detained in ‘re-education’ camps → alleged sterilisation

freedom of speech issues

→ internet is censored (e.g. 3Ts)

political freedom issues

→ Chinese communist party, in practice, is the only political party

• policies controlled by estate, little regard to population = enables further HR violations as gov rejects idea of HR entirely and cannot be challenged (by voting against)

freedom of press issues

→ not free: media monitored by communist party

• 46 crimes punishable by death

China vs India Rate of Development

India:

→ slower than Chinas

→ BUT rapid population growth and the establishment of democracy (largest democracy in world) are increasing level of development

China:

→ faster than India

• rapid economic development > HR protection

  • e.g. freedom of speech brings no economic benefit

  • exploitation of workers in SEZs

  • argue once economic development achieved, HR can then follow (like Kuznets of HR)

• not a democracy = opposition to lack of HR protection for economic development difficult

Ethiopia Health and Education

• Democratic republic

• GDP - $565 per capita

• Total expenditure on education - 5.5%

• Total expenditure on healthcare - 5.1%

• As it is a democratic republic, Ethiopia is perhaps more likely to invest in healthcare and education as the gov needs to maintain favourable public opinion to win reelection

Ethiopia Issues

• Protects HR less than other democratic republics who usually promote HR the strongest (such as the US) as they are less economically and culturally secure

• More secure countries use orgs like the UN to raise HR issues to act

• Their lower GDP means they are more likely to prioritise economic development which may lead to HR abuses

• Free elections and civil liberties but issues with press freedom

• More than 90 ethnic groups in Ethiopia - civil war and potential for future conflict

Cuba Health and Education

• Socialist republic

• GDP per capita: $6789.8

• Total Expenditure on Education: 13.6%

• Total Expenditure on Health: 8.8%

• Cuba reflects socialist commitment to equal access to education - education is free for all, including university

Cuba Issues

• Issues with freedom of speech - Repression of July 2021 protests - 100s in detention and some given 30 year sentences for throwing rocks at police officers

• Hurricane Ian - widespread power outages caused protests and the military was deployed and the gov intentionally shut down internet access to limit communication

Myanmar Health and Education

• Totalitarian regime

• GDP per capita: $1,203.8

• Total Expenditure on Education: 0.6%

• Total Expenditure on Health: 1.8% (GDP per capita) / $14

• Totalitarian regimes may decrease investment in education, health, and welfare for fear of the population becoming too well informed

• Protest suppressed

Geneva Convention Outline

• rules to protect combatants, those no longer fighting (injured/surrendered) and civilians

• outlines limits of war (war crimes) - e.g. certain weapons banned (cluster bombs, chemical weapons such as mustard gas)

• all UN member and observer states (196) have ratified the Geneva Convention

• Protects medical workers - especially Red Cross, Crescent, Crystal and MSF

• Prohibits torture and ill treatment of detainees

Geneva Convention and Ukraine and Russia

• UN Commission of Inequality on Ukraine say Russian authorities took 16,221 Ukrainian children into Russian foster families

• March 2022: Russian air strike on theatre in Mariupol which was sheltering children and attacked a hospital

• April 2022, 400 civilian bodies found

• alleged torture from both sides

Srebrenica Massacre

• aimed to kill every ‘able-bodied male’ and drive out Bosnian Muslim population

• 8000 Muslim men killed

• Karadzic, former Bosnian-Serb leader, found guilty of the Srebrenica Massacre = convicted of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity by the ICC

• sentenced 40 years in prison

  = end of systematic campaign of terror violating HR

Why are some war crimes not brought to trial?

• Fog of war obscures circumstances of crimes or offences

• Little evidence

• Few witnesses on which to base prosecution

• UN bureaucracy can hinder the process - many cases don’t make it to trial

• UN can only prosecute if the state fails to do so first + state may not agree to extradite them [hand over (a person accused or convicted of a crime) to the jurisdiction of the foreign state] + enforcement of the trial convictions by the UN is the state’s responsibility

Darfur War Crime 2003-2008

• Failure to prosecute war crimes

• Omar-al-Bashir, dictator of Sudan at time, oversaw

• 300,000 killed

• ICC issued a warrant for al-Bashir’s arrest in 2009

  • five accounts of crimes against humanity

  • two counts of war crimes

  • genocide charges added in 2010

• BUT were unable to detain him despite him travelling to countries that should’ve been forced to detain him

  = until al-Bashir is arrested and transferred to The Hague (ICC), the case will remain in the Pre-Trial stage (as long time genocide conviction difficult → requires strong set of witnesses)

Corruption Perception index

• Least corrupt nations in western Europe and Scandinavia - Norway

• Denmark is the least corrupt

• Most corrupt countries are in North-East Africa and around the Middle East

• Also high levels in Venezuela and Nicaragua

• Somalia is the most corrupt

• Only 5 countries in the 2022 index saw their year on year index scores drop by 5+ points and the UK was one (20th) - corrupt PPE contracts and uninvestigated breaches of ministerial code

• Haiti - 172/180 ranked

What is R2P?

• 2005

• Each individual state responsible for protecting population from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity

• When state lacks capacity to prevent these things, the international community is responsible for assisting (through getting a UN resolution)

• Created after atrocities of Rwandan massacre

• Changing intervention calculation

Benefits of R2P

• MORE PROACTIVE = would lead to more interventions

• leaders consider whether will be prosecuted under R2P = more likely to refrain violating HR

• applies not only for HR violations but if a government looses control (e.g. gangs take over)

• UN not only can intervene but should

Libya - 2011

• FIRST USE OF R2P

• Widespread attacks against civilians after demonstrations occurred 2011 (Arab Spring), 100s killed/injured so UN Council initiated R2P, demanding end to violence

• imposed series of international sanctions

• referred case to ICC

• March 2011: demanded ceasefire + authorised all member states to ‘take all necessary measures’

  = NATO plane strikes on Gaddafi’s forces

HOWEVER

→ international intervention not widely supported (5 countries abstained vote):

• insufficient evidence to justify interfering national sovereignty

• may set president for international community having a say in how other sovereign states treat pop (e.g. Russia/China)

→ since this intervention Libya has suffered civil war without a stable government system (shifted source of violence > solved)

Amnesty International - NGOs

• founded 1961

• HQ in London

• a mass-membership organisation funded by members and supporters, that promotes direct action such as protests, letter writing and campaigning

Human Rights Watch - NGO

• founded 1978

• HQ in New York

• largely funded by wealthy individuals, it puts pressure on governments to take action and intervene

Debates around intervention between players

→ NGOs little power to intervene, unless they are invited by a sovereign state, or protected by the forces of another

→ UN no military forces, relies on members providing and funding them

→ physical factors make aid technically difficult: land-locked countries, dense jungle, lack of air-strips to land personnel and supplies

→ geopolitical considerations may prevent interventions

• risk that intervention could lead to wider conflict (e.g. Libya)

• different sides of a conflict being allied to opposing powerful countries

  • e.g. the USA and Russia - vote differently at S.C

→ any intervention breaches sovereignty of a state = needs very strong moral and ethical grounds for direct military intervention (e.g. widespread and serious HR violations)

• = often western govs intervene indirectly (economically)

  • economic aid for social development with policy change required to receive (e.g. ODA)

  • making trade agreements with conditions of HR improvement

Short examples of HR violations

• 2015-18 persecution of the Muslim Rohingya nation by the Myanmar government military forces

• Bosnian genocide of Muslim men and boys in Srebrenica 1992-5

• The genocide of the Tutsi in Rwanda by Hutu forces 1994

• Forced inequality of women under the Taliban in Afghanistan 1996-2001 + 2021-today

Corruption index measure

→ scores countries globally based on how corrupt their public sector is perceived to be

source:

• 13 different external sources

• perception of experts / surveys of businesspeople

reliable: only countries with data from at least 3 of the 13 sources included

limitations:

• Changed system in 2012 = cannot compare CPI scores from after 2012 to before 2012

• Doesn’t measure everything (e.g. tax fraud)

• Corruption hard to measure as its designed to stay hidden, so only comes to light with scandals, investigations or prosecutions = still no measure of ‘real’ levels of corruption

Differences in HR protections - Gender

• Afghanistan - disparity in gender inequality → progress in women's education made 1973-1992 BUT dramatically reversed with Taliban taking power 1996-2001 and again in 2021

  • Taliban = fundamentalist religious and political group, following extremely strict version of Sharia Law - restricted role of women

  • women can’t go out alone, appear on TV, be visible in a house from the street, be employed or get medical attention

  • 2001-2021, limited progress made with a more moderate government, but was no better than in the 1970s + now decreasing again as they’ve resumed power

Differences in HR protections - ethnicity

• Myanmar - Rohingya Muslims

• Myanmar is mostly Buddhist - 90%

• Under the 1982 Myanmar Nationality Law the Rohingya were denied nationality = have no HR protection

• Between 1978-2018 several military persecutions have forced 740,000+ Rohingya to flee as refugees to Bangladesh

  • The 2015-18 crisis was labelled a genocide and crime against humanity

Differences in education in USA - HR issue

→ decreased HR protection for indigenous populations compared to general population

High School Diploma: 83% (indigenous) vs 87% (general)

Households in Poverty: 27% (indigenous) vs 15% (general)

Life expectancy: 73 (indigenous) vs 79 (general)

Demands for equality - Australia

ATSI Australians only counted in the national census, and allowed to vote in 1967

Starting in 1976, some land rights have been granted, entitling them to some traditional lands

HOWEVER

• ATSI Australians still feel under-represented in politics and business

• still feel their rights (especially rights to land) have not been met

• life expectancy nearly 10 years less than white Australians

What is intervention

Intervention is action taken by one or more sovereign states, within the territory of another, in order to change their political and social conditions

Development aid definition

money, technical help, or supplies given to developing countries to support long term econ/pol/soc/env development

Trade embargo definition

government/international ban to restrict trade with a particular sovereign state, to pressurise its leaders into changing policies

Military aid definition

money, weapons, expertise given to developing countries to strengthen their military (e.g. so they can better protect borders, fight terrorism, combat piracy, prevent trafficking etc)

Military action definition

• Direct: air strikes or troops from one sovereign state acting in another

• Indirect - equipment, or advisers, are provided from one sovereign state to another/a military group within them

UK and USA development aid

→ $150 billion of aid each year from developed countries to developing countries aiming to improve welfare + HR

---

• 0 out of top 10 recipients are democracies or flawed democracies (EIU Democracy Index)

• large sums of money

  • USA: $16bil 2017 dev aid (+$10bil military aid)

  • BUT UK sometimes larger proportion of income

    • 1970 UN resolution of wealthy members committing 0.7% GNI annually to dev aid (voluntary)

    • UK: 2015 made legal requirement to hit, 2021 0.7% GNI

    • USA: 2021 0.2% GNI

• in sub-Saharan Africa, aid targeted to developing countries

  • to improve HD (e.g. education, healthcare)

  • for geopolitical influence, creating allies (countering influence of China/Russia)

• USA main donation: Afghanistan, $1,000,000,000

• UK main donation: Pakistan, £402 million

Bilateral aid definition

given from one country to another, either monetary, technical, or supplies

Multilateral aid definition

given from an IGO (e.g. World Bank), often involves loans

UK development funding

36% multilateral, 64% bilateral

Aid from NGOs

by charities such as Oxfam and Christian Aid, funded by donations from ordinary people

Emergency aid definition

short-term aid, to cope with a natural disaster, often from NGOs and governments

Motives for development aid

→ genuine desire to improve human rights and human welfare (altruism)

→ political ties, such as providing aid to ex-colonies (guilt or responsibility for past exploitation)

→ to gain economic access for businesses (or prevent other countries from gaining influence)

→ to strengthen political alliances 

How many deaths in the 2014 Ebola outbreak?

11,000

2014 Ebola context

→ outbreak in West AFrica first reported 2014, became deadliest occurence of Ebola

• killed 5x more than all other outbreaks combined (11,000)

• 28,637 cases

  → poverty + fewer deaths than other epidemics = little incentive for drug companies to invest, so work of non-profits essential

→ aiding ability of healthcare, sanitation, and education systems important for tackling:

• the dehydration the virus causes leads to deaths = rehydration therapy reduced mortality rate 90%→25%

• spreads through bodily fluids = less contagious

  • poor sanitation systems increase spread

  • traditional burial practices increase spread

Role of WHO in 2014 Ebola

→ UN, IGO

• ability to declare global health emergencies

  → needed to access greater funding from UN + others (e.g. UK gov + Wellcome Trust)

  → 1st on hierarchy of response

• supported training

  • of safe burial practices

  • of healthcare workers in hygiene practices (e.g. gov +NGOs, inc. MSF)

Role of UK in 2014 Ebola

→ national government, through DFID (old name)

• DFID worked with WHO

• leading role (esp. in Sierra Leone - was a British colony)

  • £427mil of direct support

  • supported regular cargo flights (partly funded by EU) to SL

• supported 1400 treatment/isolation beds + 6 treatment centres

  • = isolate fast + limit spread

• trained 4000+ healthcare workers

• £10mil to increase burial teams (to 100), quickening response

• radio messaging increased awareness and understanding

Role of the Wellcome Trust in 2014 Ebola

→ NGO, charitable organisation

• rapid response, funding research under R2HC

  • a £6.5mil initiative funded by Wellcome + DFID

  • research covers epidemiology, diagnosis, disease prevention

• gave initial £40mil to launch DELTAS Africa

  • long term plan to develop African health researchers

  • would help manage/decrease other persistent health threats too (e.g. HIV and cancer)

Role of MSF in 2014 Ebola

→ NGO, Doctors Without Borders

• employed 4000 national and 325 international staff

• ran 15 management centres (partly funded by EU)

  • admitted 10,310 patients

  • confirmed 3201 cases (1/3 of all WHO confirmed cases)

• first 5 months handled 85% of hospitalised cases

• continued support post-epidemic in Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone (Ebola survivor clinics)

Role of EU in 2014 Ebola

• provided $2.25bil in aid

• short term medical supplies + health workers

• medical research projects (e.g. vaccines)

• 60% of the money that they gave was for development

Success of Ebola intervention summary

→ money funded research projects and training of new healthcare workers/researchers to prevent future outbreaks (Wellcome Trust)

→ vaccines being trialled, though slow (EU/Wellcome Trust)

→ effective response

• treatment centres = reduce deaths

• effective isolation/containment → mostly only 3 countries (WHO’s coordination)

Failures of Ebola intervention

→ WHO declared international emergency too late = possible unnecessary deaths - still 11,000 deaths

→ Epidemic negatively impacted economic growth, most aid short-term/specific to treating Ebola

• BUT EU, 60% aid for development

  • treating underlying problem (sanitation, infrastructure)

→ healthcare workers still spread thin (1-2 workers per facility) and not enough PEE (e.g. masks) in peripheral health facilities

Why can development aid be negative?

• May increase corruption

• it reduces innovation, free enterprise and entrepreneurship because it provides a basic level of economic support

• it creates dependency, so countries begin to rely on aid 'handouts' rather than fostering economic development

How Haiti’s history explains its lack of dev?

• struggled to develop + experienced political violence from birth

• slaves rebelled and won independence from France in 1804 = isolated by other slave-owning countries

→ heavy debt

• feared invasion = pay back 90 million gold francs over the following 122 years to France

• 1964-1986 ruled by the corrupt and oppressive Duvalier family (with western, anti-communist support -> had to pay back US economic aid they provided)

Long-term debt in Haiti

• didn't qualify for HIPC + SAPs (IMF - failures of IGOs) initiative despite poorest country in Americas - stuck with the debt!

• democratically elected President Aristide suggested French pay $21bil in reparations, soon after overthrown by a military coup supported by the US

→ devastating 2010 EQ =debt raised to $1.3bil as new loans given as aid (grants better)

Haiti weak government

• US intervention in elections

• ranks 164/180 on the corruption index

  • huge issues with gangs and gun crime now - not dealt with bc of a lack of governance

Corruption in Haiti

• 164/180 on corruption index (2^nd most corrupt in western hemisphere) - meant development aid grew debt as it was misspent - meant less aid went directly to local people/groups who understand where needs lie better than international organisations

• only $582mil (9.1%) of $6.43bil of multilateral and bilateral aid (2010-2012) directly to Haitian government

• especially important as people in dire situation: rife poverty (70% on less than $2 a day) and 2 million homeless

→ corruption of aiding superpowers (prevented some foreign debt but not foreign domination)

• 2010: USA interferes with elections - effectively banning one party, preventing Aristide’s return and influencing the vote counting process

  • prevented possibility of receiving reparations from France

Dependency in Haiti

→ loans used more than grants = more debt

• even though HIPC cancelled debt, new reconstruction funds offered as loans

  • 2017: 20% GDP still spent on foreign debts

→ neo-colonialism (superpowers at fault)

• relying on external aid (no longer able to independently develop)

  • [Libya → 25% GDP dev aid]

• aid money spent on contracts with American rather than local companies

Solution for dependency on foreign aid

→ better system for providing development aid needed to decrease dependency

• e.g. going straight to Haitian NGOs so they can control where investment is given (know the needs of people better)

• however, corruption = don’t trust to misspend money

• = transparent and accountable system is needed (e.g. giving regular updates on what is being done – if not enough being done, money can be retracted - seen with Ethiopian dam dev aid

Haiti and the HIPC program

• must accept neoliberal economic policy of IMF (e.g. privatisation)

• many debts not included -> Haiti still ‘owed’ $900mil in 2009

• developed countries didn’t accept their role in creating Haiti’s unjust debt, instead saw as charity

Human rights issues in Haiti

didn’t solve human rights abuses:

→ 2015 Human Rights Watch reported high numbers of arbitrary arrests and pre-trial detentions by Haitian police

BUT: helped right to basic necessities after 2010 disaster

• e.g. temporary homes for 2 million made homeless

Haiti - Health and education

→ HIPC aid better than no aid

→ DEC Appeal after the 2010 disaster

• 1.8mil+ assisted with £107mil of DEC funds

• 2010-2012:

  • improved water supplies of 340,000 people

  • supplied drugs to 5 cholera treating facilities serving 18,000 people

  • gave info to 116,000 people about preparing for future disasters

  • helped to reduce gender inequality: literacy classes for 60,000 vulnerable women

How many women had literacy classes in Haiti?

60,000 vulnerable women

Global success in health

Global Vaccination Programmes

→ led by WHO since the 1960s - immunisation reduced disease in developing countries.

• smallpox was eradicated in 1977

• measles deaths fell by 85% in Africa from 2000 to 2014

• worldwide polio cases have fallen by 99% since 1988

= can better access education + employment = improved social capital + HD (positive multiplier effect)

How much have world polio cases fallen by since 1988?

99%