Last Minute Study Notes

EKG Deflection, EKG Tracing, and Conduction System

EKG Deflections:

P wave: Atrial depolarization (contraction).

QRS Complex: Ventricular depolarization (contraction).

T wave: Ventricular repolarization (relaxation).

Conduction System:

Sinoatrial (SA) Node: Initiates electrical impulses; "pacemaker" of the heart.

Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Delays impulse to allow atria to empty into ventricles.

Bundle of His: Transmits impulses to the left and right ventricles.

Purkinje Fibers: Distribute electrical impulses to ventricular myocardium, causing ventricular contraction.

Heart Valves

Atrioventricular (AV) valves:

Tricuspid Valve: Located between the right atrium and right ventricle.

Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve: Located between the left atrium and left ventricle.

Semilunar valves:

Pulmonary Valve: Between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery.

Aortic Valve: Between the left ventricle and aorta.

Location of the Heart

Location: The heart is located in the mediastinum, between the lungs, behind the

sternum, and slightly to the left of the midline.

Heart Conditions

Arrhythmia: Abnormal heart rhythm, can be too fast, slow, or irregular.

Heart Failure: Condition where the heart is unable to pump blood effectively.``````````````````````````

Myocardial Infarction (Heart Attack): Blockage in coronary arteries leading to tissue death in the heart muscle.

Valvular Heart Disease: Abnormalities in heart valves, such as stenosis (narrowing) or regurgitation (leakage).

Layers of Myocardium

Endocardium: Inner lining of the heart chambers and valves.

Myocardium: Middle, muscular layer responsible for contraction.

Epicardium: Outer layer, also known as the visceral layer of the pericardium.

Pressure in Arteries and Veins

Arteries: Higher pressure due to the force of heart contraction.

Veins: Lower pressure as blood returns to the heart.

Systolic Pressure: Pressure in arteries when the heart contracts.

Diastolic Pressure: Pressure in arteries when the heart is at rest between beats.

Blood Types

Blood Types: Based on the presence of antigens on the surface of RBCs.

Type A: A antigens on RBCs.

Type B: B antigens on RBCs.

Type AB: Both A and B antigens.

Type O: No A or B antigens (universal donor).

Rh Factor: Determines if blood type is positive (+) or negative (-), based on the presence or absence of the Rh antigen.

Flow of Blood in the Heart

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Inferior and superior vena cava, Right atrium, Tricuspid, Right ventricle, Pulmonary semilunar, Pulmonary Artery, Lungs, Pulmonary Vein, Left Atrium, Bicuspid, Left ventricles, Aortic, Aorta, Through the body

Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cava.

Blood flows through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle.

The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary valve to the pulmonary arteries.

Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.

Blood passes through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the left ventricle.

The left ventricle pumps blood through the aortic valve to the aorta and the rest of the body.

Blood Conditions

Anemia: A condition where there is a deficiency of red blood cells or hemoglobin, leading to decreased oxygen delivery.

Types:

Iron-deficiency anemia: Lack of iron for hemoglobin production.

Sickle Cell Anemia: Abnormal hemoglobin causing RBCs to become sickle-shaped.

Pernicious Anemia: Vitamin B12 deficiency affecting RBC production.

Polycythemia: An increase in the number of RBCs, leading to thickened blood.

Leukemia: Cancer of white blood cells, leading to abnormal production of WBCs.

White Blood Cell Function

Leukocytes (WBCs): Help defend against infections.

Neutrophils: First responders to bacterial infection.

Lymphocytes: B cells produce antibodies; T cells kill infected cells.

Monocytes: Turn into macrophages that consume pathogens.

Eosinophils: Combat parasitic infections and allergic reactions.

Basophils: Release histamine during allergic reactions.

White Blood Cell Conditions

Leukocytosis: Increased number of WBCs, usually due to infection.

Leukopenia: Decreased number of WBCs, often due to viral infections or bone marrow issues.

Types of Leukocytes

Granulocytes:

Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils.

Agranulocytes:

Lymphocytes (B and T cells), Monocytes.

Types of Anemia

Iron-deficiency anemia: Low iron leads to reduced hemoglobin production.

Pernicious anemia: Lack of vitamin B12 needed for RBC production.

Sickle cell anemia: Abnormal hemoglobin causes RBCs to take a sickle shape, leading to blockages in blood flow.

Flow of Blood in Blood Vessels

Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the body (except pulmonary artery).

Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except pulmonary veins).

Capillaries: Smallest blood vessels where nutrient, gas, and waste exchange occurs.

Pulmonary Circulation

Pulmonary circulation: Circulation of blo

Right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs via pulmonary arteries.

Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via pulmonary veins.

Types of Shock

Hypovolemic Shock: Caused by loss of blood or fluids.

Cardiogenic Shock: Caused by heart failure.

Septic Shock: Caused by severe infection and widespread vasodilation.

Neurogenic Shock: Caused by damage to the nervous system leading to vasodilation.

Anaphylactic Shock: Caused by an allergic reaction leading to vasodilation.

Hypertension Stages

Normal: Systolic < 120 mmHg and Diastolic < 80 mmHg.

Elevated: Systolic 120-129 mmHg and Diastolic < 80 mmHg.

Hypertension Stage 1: Systolic 130-139 mmHg or Diastolic 80-89 mmHg.

Hypertension Stage 2: Systolic ≥ 140 mmHg or Diastolic ≥ 90 mmHg.

Hypertensive Crisis: Systolic > 180 mmHg or Diastolic > 120 mmHg.