AP Euro ch. 4

anticlericalism

• opposition to the influence and power of the clergy(pluralism, absenteeism, church immorality + ignorance), most seen in Europe/Latin America

  • drove the Protestant Reformation and later religious movements

  • separation of church and state in many countries(France, US, others)

  • led to conflicts(French Rev. due to clergy censorship, Kulturkampf- Bismarck’s attacks on the Church)

  • *spurred by fascism in Italy- absolute control of the state

pluralism

• church members’ holding of multiple benefices

  • led to resentment against higher-ups in the Church

  • led to corruption + greed in the church -> resentment from lay people + lessening of church authority due to greedy clerics and lack of proper leadership

  • neglected pastoral duties(mass, sacraments, guidance) + spiritual needs of followers

  • contributed to the Protestant Reformation + Council of Trent

absenteeism

• clerics’ holding of church benefices from far away, usually hire poor priests to do their job for them and collect all the revenue(usually happens w/ pluralism)

  • led to resentment against higher-ups in the Church

  • led to corruption + greed in the church -> resentment from lay people + lessening of church authority due to greedy clerics and lack of proper leadership

  • neglected pastoral duties(mass, sacraments, guidance) + spiritual needs of followers

  • contributed to the Protestant Reformation + Council of Trent

Martin Luther(1483-1546)

• German priest and professor, Augustinian friar(helps/teaches the poor), “sola fide, sola scriptura, sola gratia”

  • faith alone, grace alone, Scripture alone- salvation comes through faith, which comes from God only, God’s word is Scriptures only, not the Church

  • mad that indulgences made people neglectful in their faith

  • Clergy and lay people should have same status, no clerical celibacy, priests not necessary to have a connection to God, transubstantiation due to God’s mystery

  • Translated the Bible into vernacular so it could be read by common people

    • jump in education and literacy

  • sparked the Protestant Reformation

  • secularization(ish) of Germany

indulgences

• remission of temporal punishment brought about by sin, got by doing good works. Church draws from “Treasury of merits”- bank of good deeds accumulated by the Church, and applies them to followers

  • partial- remove part of suffering vs plenary- remove all of suffering

  • abused during later Middle Ages + Renaissance when sold for money to fund Church activities

  • contributed to the Protestant Reformation(Luther + sola fide) + Council of Trent

  • allowed for patronage of artists + funding of things like the St. Peter’s Basilica

  • Johann Tetzel- advertised indulgences, claimed they brought full forgiveness from purgatory

Ninety-Five Theses

• Luther’s critique of Church practices(esp. abuse of indulgences) + challenge to the authority of the pope/Church

  • sparked the Protestant reformation

  • sola fide, sola scriptura, sola gratia

  • encouraged religious revolution(led to Enlightenment, Sci. Rev.)

Charles V

• Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of Spain, controlled a vast amount of territory in West Europe

  • Height of Habsburg Power

  • indirect cause of Reformation

  • patron of the arts

  • influential guy

sola fide

• Lutheran belief that salvation comes from faith in God, the Church is unnecessary

  • challenged the authority of the Church(justification: good works, sacraments, Church participation needed for salvation)

  • key part of Protestant Reformation/theology

sola scriptura

• Lutheran belief that the Bible is the ultimate authority about God and God’s word

  • challenged the authority of the Church(Church tradition)

  • empowered individual people to read/interpret the Bible

    • encouraged literacy

  • key part of Protestant Reformation/theology

Ulrich Zwingli

• Swiss humanist who believed in sola fide+sola scriptura, priesthood of all believers, and disliked indulgences, monasticism, and clerical celibacy

  • reformed the church in Zurich/Switzerland

  • believed Eucharist was a memorial of Christ(he’s present in spirit)

  • key figure in the Reformation, laid groundwork for Calvin later

debates over Eucharist

• debates over whether the bread and wine at communion is Jesus’s body or if he’s present in spirit or if it’s just a symbolic gesture, etc.

  • caused splitting in Protestantism

  • Catholic- Transubstantiation- Christ’s real presence in the bread + wine, changes into Christ through priest’s power

  • Lutheranism- Consubstantiation- bread + wine co-exists with the body of Christ, changes through God’s mystery

  • Other groups(Zwingli)- Christ is not there but Communion remembers his death and sacrifice

appeal of Protestant ideas

• appeal of protestant ideas to lay people due to its condemnation of the Church and belief of equality of clergy and laity

  • Protestant ideas spread across Europe during the 16th century

  • Protestantism spread rapidly w/ the printing press + Luther’s catechisms(books of basic religious knowledge)

  • Luther and Zwingli both worked closely with authorities(Zurich, Saxony) to install Protestantism as a long-lasting religion

  • *secular rulers above religious rulers

  • territories becoming protestant when reformers brought in to educate everyone

Luther’s German Bible

• Luther’s German Bible- Luther’s translation of the Bible into German

  • Made the bible accessible to the common people(only the clergy speak Latin)

  • encouraged literacy among the population

  • influential in the Protestant Reformation

Anabaptists

• aka rebaptizers, a group of people that believed in baptism of adult believers

  • called rebaptizers because people usually baptized as a child

  • group of radical reformers that challenged the Church

  • communal ownership of property

German Peasants’ War

• German Peasants’ War(1525)- Major peasant uprising in the HRE against feudal oppression, spurred on by religious change and the Reformation

  • enclosed fields, meadows, forests

  • moderate improvement in conditions

  • 75000 peasants killed

Protestant ideas about marriage

• against clerical celibacy, “pastor’s wife” expected to be obedient + Christian, marriage not a sacrament but “ideal state for all humans”, remedy for lust

  • allowed clergy to marry

  • marriage for love instead of as a social contract

  • went against the Church, marriage ordained by God instead of just as a sacrament

  • prostitution outlawed in Protestant cities

  • raised status of marriage

divorce

• dissolution of marriage due to brokenness

  • unprecedented, Catholic remarriage not allowed

  • “desperate last resort” b/c marriage very important in society

Argula von Grumbach

• German Protestant noblewoman, supporter of priesthood of all believers, feminist

  • Helped spread Luther’s ideas

  • First Protestant woman writer

war in Switzerland

• first battleground of Catholic v. Protestant warfare caused by splitting of 13 cantons between the two branches

  • Ulrich Zwingli killed, succeeded by Heinrich Bullinger

  • Each canton allowed to determine their religion

  • 1st Peace of Kappel set a precedent for the Peace of Augsburg later

  • stopped Swiss unification due to religious split

  • set a precedent for modern Switzerland’s neutrality

Augsburg Confession

• confession of faith for the Lutheran Church presented to Charles V, declaration of differences between Reformers and the Church

  • “official” split from Catholicism

  • established a theological base for Protestantism

  • led to Peace of Augsburg

  • made clear differences between Lutheranism and other branches like Zwinglianism and Anabaptism

Peace of Augsburg

• meeting that recognized Lutheranism and established cuius regio eius religio in Germany

  • Legal recognition of Lutheranism

  • Temporary peace in HRE

  • Further alienation of other groups like Anabaptists

  • instability in Germany partially led to further religious conflict(30 Years War)

  • Charles V out of power

Reformation in Scandinavia

• the spread of Lutheran ideas to Scandinavia from the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark

  • Denmark-Norway under Christian III first non-HRE state to be Reformed

    • close to Germany, Danish people studied at Luther’s school

    • went well in Denmark but northern territories reacted very badly

  • Protestant ideas later spread through Sweden under Vasa, but not officially recognized until later

  • Lutheranism as the state religion

  • confiscation of Church holdings -> lots of power gain for Scandinavian kings

Henry VIII

• Renaissance-era ruler of England who Reformed England due to desire for a wife, among other reasons

  • English Reformation + break with Rome

  • centralization due to the Reformation

  • Anglicanism

Act of Supremacy

• Act passed by Henry VIII that cut ties with Rome and appointed the English monarch as the head of the Church of England

  • schism with the Roman Catholic Church

  • Consolidation of royal power

    • confiscation of Church property in England(dissolution of the monasteries)

  • Religious conflict due to differing religions of later rulers(Mary I, Elizabeth I) + killing of opposition(Thomas More)

Thomas Cromwell

• chief minister of Henry VIII, key figure in the English Reformation

  • Reformed and modernized English gov’t

  • Helped Henry centralize power + pass Act of Supremacy

Catholicism in Ireland

• Ireland loyal to the Catholic church, but English(didn’t have firm control over Ireland) authorities approved severance with the Catholic Church

  • Protestant reforms largely stayed in English-controlled area

  • led to religious conflict

  • encroachment on Irish autonomy

Book of Common Prayer

• book of services and prayers by Thomas Cranmer

  • first English liturgical text- allowed Church services to happen in English

  • led to opposition from Catholic/radical Protestants

    • Prayer Book Rebellion

  • Contributed to development of English literary style

  • Symbol of English national/religious identity

  • Bishop’s Wars(1637)

Elizabeth I

• Daughter of Henry VIII and English ruler succeeding Mary I

  • Restored Protestantism in England

  • via media- tolerated Catholicism in private

  • Defeated the Spanish Armada → Elizabeth as a “defender of Protestantism”

  • Symbol of English national identity

Spanish Armada

• group of 130+ Spanish vessels sent by Philip II to attack England for revenge for killing Mary, Queen of Scots

  • defeat led to emergence of England as a naval power

  • Boost to reputation of Queen Elizabeth

  • Decline of Spanish power and naval supremacy

    • Decline in Catholicism(Dutch revolt)

  • Evolution of naval warfare(artillery)

Act of Uniformity

• legislation passed by Elizabeth I that re-established the Book of Common Prayer and attempted to compromise between Protestants and Catholic and required everyone to attend Anglican church service

  • strengthened English monarchy

  • quelled religious conflict in England

  • reaffirmed England as a Protestant state

pirates

• People who attacked and robbed ships at sea

  • led to disruption of trade routes between European nations and their colonies

  • led to the rise of privateering(gov’t mobilizes private ships ordering them to attack enemies)

  • Led to evolution of naval warfare

  • led to decline of the Spanish Empire

John Calvin

• influential figure in the Protestant Reformation and founder of Calvinism, writer of Institutes of the Christian Religion

  • establishment in Geneva

  • founder of Calvinism

predestination

• the Calvinist idea that God has already determined the destiny of every individual and that it can’t be changed

  • total depravity- can only go to heaven by God’s grace

  • key part of Calvinism and influenced many other Protestant denominations

  • influenced antigovernmental ideas(Dutch Revolt)

  • Set Calvinism apart from other Protestant denominations

Geneva

• City in Switzerland largely reformed by Calvin and his beliefs(Consistory)

  • center of Calvin’s theology, attracted many other Protestants from across Europe(esp. exiles from Mary Tudor’s England)

  • Academy of Geneva

  • facilitated the spread of Protestantism

  • acted as a model Christian city, with many rules regarding morals and behavior

Impact of Calvinism on Presbyterians, Huguenots, and Puritans

• Reformed theology

• Spread of Calvinism

• Influence in America(Puritans, Presbyterians)

• French Protestant movement(Huguenots) → French Wars of Religion

• Puritan migration to America

Protestant work ethic

• Set of values associated with Calvin and the Puritans that emphasized hard work and discipline(Max Weber)

  • Led to economic development in Western Europe

John Knox

• Important Reformation figure in Scotland, responsible for establishment of a state church

  • Modeled the Scottish Church after Calvin’s Geneva

  • Changed Scotland’s rule from Catholic to Presbyterian

  • Wrote to critique Catholicism and Catholic rulers like Mary, Queen of Scots and Mary I

Reformation in Poland

• Lutheran ideas spread in German towns of Poland-Lithuania

  • Opposed by King Sigismund I and Poles(anti-German sentiment)

• Calvinist ideals appealed more than Lutheran b/c Calvin was French + nobility liked it

• No unified Reformation + Catholic counter-reformation led to Poland remaining Catholic

breakup of Hungary

• Split of Hungary after devastating loss to the Ottomans at Mohacs that led to split of Hungary between Ottomans, Habsburgs, and Ottoman-backed Janos Zapolya

  • Ottoman expansion

  • Fragmenting of Hungary under different cultural influence

simony

• selling of church offices

  • led to corruption and incompetence within the Church

  • helped spark Reformation movements

  • led to reforms at the Council of Trent

Holy Office

• group with power over the Roman Inquisition

  • very powerful in the Church

  • complete judicial power over all Catholics

  • arrest, imprison, suspect heretics

  • published the Index of Prohibited books

Index of Prohibited Books

• Catholic catalogue of books forbidden to read, including many by humanists such as Erasmus as well as Protestants

  • Important tool for Catholic censorship and power

  • One of the Catholic responses to the Reformation

Council of Trent

• meeting at Trent that was part of the Catholic response to the Reformation

  • Significant event in the Counter-Reformation

  • Reformation of Church practices such as simony, sale of indulgences, absenteeism, pluralism, etc.

  • Standardization of Catholic doctrine

  • Influenced Catholic worship and laid foundation for the Church in the modern era

Teresa of Avila

• Carmelite nun who was known for reforming the Carmelite order and writing some books partially based on her visions

  • Reformer of the Carmelite order- emphasized asceticism and poverty

  • Mystic and spiritual writer

  • Strong independant woman, went against the idea that “women weren’t supposed to teach”

Ursuline order

• An order of nuns founded by Angela Merici focused on education of young women and training wives and mothers

  • Big step for education of women and young girls

  • Part of the Counter-Reformation, strengthening Catholic identity

  • Expanded very far, through France and the New World

  • Promoted women’s rights

Jesuits

• a.k.a. Society of Jesus- a clerical order founded by Ignatius Loyola that contributed to strengthening Catholicism in Europe and the New World and other colonies

  • Set the reputation for Christianity as a missionary religion

  • Goal was “to help souls” rather than reform the Church

  • Brought a lot of reformed parts of Europe back to Catholicism

  • very, VERY successful at strengthening the Catholic Church

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

• Treaty signed in 1559 by France and Spain that ended the Habsburg-Valois wars

  • France acknowledged Spanish victory and dominance in Italy

  • Led to significant French loss of influence in Italy

Huguenots

• Term used for Calvinists in France

  • One of the sides in the French Wars of Religion

  • Helped get to religious tolerance in Europe after Edict of Nantes

Catherine de’Medici

• Rich and powerful Catholic, member of the Medici family, wife of Henry II of France

  • puppets Henry II’s children after he dies

  • Involvement in St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre(may have planned it)

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

• massacre of Protestant attendees at the wedding of Margaret of Valois and Henry of Navarre that spread throughout the countryside

  • bad look for Catholics in Europe, brought much support to the Huguenots in the following Wars of Religion

  • May have been instigated by Catherine de Medici

  • Brought back religious war in France

politique

• A leader or group of leaders that put the well-being of their state above all else

  • End of religious wars in France

  • ex: Elizabeth I, Henry IV, Charles II

Henry IV of Navarre

• Notable politique and ruler of France, converted to Catholicism to unify France

  • Passed the Edict of Nantes

  • Ended French Wars of Religion

Edict of Nantes

• Edict issued by Henry IV that granted religious freedom to Huguenots in France

  • Ended French Wars of Religion

Philip II

• Spanish ruler and son of Charles V

  • Ruled at the height of Spanish empire

  • Lost the Spanish Armada

  • Defender of Catholicism during the Reformation

“Pacification” of Ghent

• Philip II sending 20,000 troops to the Low Countries under orders to “pacify” them after Calvinist sacking of churches

  • Showed that Spanish rule was “ungodly” and should be overthrown

Union of Utrecht

• Alliance of Protestant provinces in Holland against the Spanish crown, supported by England later

  • Foundation of full Dutch independence

  • Influence on future Dutch governance

  • Full cooperation between provinces important during the Dutch revolt

United Provinces

• Previously Union of Utrecht that gained independence from Spanish rule in 1609

  • Dutch independence from Spain

  • Impact on European politics and economics

Witch hunts

• in Reformation-era Europe: persecution of women who identified with Satan- witches

  • Exacerbated instability in Europe

  • Exacerbated gender divide between men and women

  • decline coincided with Sci. Rev and Enlightenment

  • led to legal changes

  • Lots and lots of executions 🥳

Gender roles in witch hunts

• Far more women were persecuted than men during the witch hunts

  • 75-85% executed were women

  • misogyny and hate of women by demonologists

  • women “powerful sexual desire”, “weak” → more likely to contact the Devil

  • Could not take people to court/beat people up → more likely to scold → demonic

legal changes

• Legal changes that allowed for mass witch trials

  • Inquisitorial legal procedure- authorities seek out people to persecute

  • Expansion of legal definitions regarding witchcraft

  • Legal reform post-witch hunts