RPE: the universe, creation and the place of human beings

what are some religious teachings on the origins of the universe?

• Christians believe the universe was created ‘ex nihilio’ (from when it was ‘formless and empty’ at the start of Genesis 1), Christians also believe God is the creator because in Genesis 1 it states how He ‘in the beginning created the heavens and the earth’ (Genesis 1 and 2 tell the story of creation for Christians when God created the world in 6 days), On the 6th day God created humans in ‘imageo dei’

• William Paley’s watch analogy backs a creator

what are some non religious teachings on the origins of the universe?

• the steady state theory is the belief that the universe has always been here and is constantly expanding

• The Big Bang theory states that the universe originated from a singular, dense point billions ofyears ago, leading to the expansion of space and time.

How should humans treat the world? Religious

• Christians believe they have been given dominion (authority) over the earth from God. In Genesis 1 it says we ‘may rule over every living creature’

• Christians also believe we have been given stewardship (the temporary job to take care) of the earth. This is emphasised in Genesis 2 because we must ‘work it and take care of it’

• Christians also think we should treat the world with love and respect as everything was created by God and therefore has inherent value (Buddhists all life in whatever form should be respected)

How should humans treat the world? Non-religious

• Altruism and legacy suggests the purpose of life is to leave a positive impact and help others, this may be in the form of looking after the earth for future generations

• The utilitarian perspective argues that humans should treat the world in ways that maximize overall happiness and well-being, considering the consequences of their actions on the environment.

Humans compared to animals non religious

• Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution in the book Original of the Species denys many Christian views that humans are worth more than humans and that God created the world in 6 days because it suggests creatures are the result of thousands of years of evolution. This not only makes humans and animals very similar (humans share common ancestors with chimpanzees) but isn’t compatible with the idea of Gods perfect creation

• Some people still think were superior though and argue if our exceptionalism due to our unique qualities (that aren’t actually unique)

Humans compared to animals religious

• Pope John Paul II said ‘respect for life extends to the rest of creation’

• Christians believe they have been given dominion (authority) over the earth from God. In Genesis 1 it says we ‘may rule over every living creature’ and can therefore use animals for food 9Genesis 2 says ‘eat anything” although some Christians dont eat red meat on Good Friday out of respect for Jesus’ cruxifixction

• Hindus are often vegitarian due to ahimsa ad respect for all life

• In Mathew it says that we are ‘worth much more than the birds’ and as well as being created in ‘imageo dei’ this suggests we are better thanh animals

What is Liebniz’s law?

Liebniz's law, also known as the principle of the identity of indiscernibles, states that if two entities share all the same properties, they are identical. This principle implies that there are no two distinct objects that are indistinguishable from one another. humans dont work fir Liebnizs law as it seems we a re a totally different person within 7 years

What are different views about body and soul?

• Dualism: Plato is a famous dualist who believes the soul is also more important the body because as established the body is susceptible to change and its worldly needs distract us from the persuit of knowledge

• Materialism: RIchard Dawkins believes the soul is a mythological concept to explain the mysteries of consciousness but he predicts that scientists will eventually uncover the biological basis of human thought and consciousness through the study of the brain and genetics and prove materialism true.

What are religious views about immortality and the soul?

• Christians believe that through the death and resurrection of Jesus, believers can attain eternal life for their soul. Jesus said ‘ the one who believes in me will live even though they die’. This hints at the belief in Heaven or Hell as an afterlife. Which one you go to is either individually judged or (the belief of Catholics) decided in the day of judgment where we are sorted as depicted in the parable of the sheep’s and goats. You either get eternally damned or truly die (unclear) or your soul lives on eternally with God (linear)

• John Hick‘s theodicy suggests that all humans will eventually achieve salvation and that the soul will live on after death. He believes that life on earth is a test that prepares the soul for a greater existence (linear)

• Hindus believe in reincarnation, where the soul is reborn into different bodies across various lifetimes, influenced by karma. This cycle continues until the soul achieves moksha, or liberation, which is union with the divine.

What are non religious views about immortality and the soul?

• Physicalism implies that we cease to exist after death as we are only our body, Epicurus (physicalist and nihilist) famously thought himself and death couldn’t exist at the same time so didnt fear death He said ‘when death is come we are not’

• Descartes believed that the soul is distinct from the body (the soul can be proved as a thinking something while the body can be logically doubted). and that the soul survives after death, suggesting continuity of existence beyond physical demise.

What are religious causes of human selfishness, greed, ignorance and sin?

• Christians believe that evil is the abuse of free will given by God to allow us to have a relationship with him. In order for us to be able to be good and to be able to see and appreciate good, then evil has to exist and it enters the world in GEnesis 3

• Christians also believe in a Devil/Satan who is less powerful than God but exists as an external force to tempt us from God

• Christians explain the existence of evil and suffering in a world made by a omnibenevelent creator with theodicies such as Augustinian theodicy, which argues that evil came from the free will of humans who chose to turn away from God's goodness, and Irenaean theodicy, which suggests that evil is necessary for soul-making and personal growth.

• Hindus believe evil is the constant struggle in the the universe and in our individual selves so good and evil are natural parts of creation and in humans is exhibited by the tempt of selfishness

What are non religious causes of human selfishness, greed, ignorance and sin?

• Non-religious views often attribute human selfishness, greed, ignorance, and sin to psychological factors, social conditioning, and evolutionary instincts that prioritize self-preservation and competition over altruism. In a secular context, these traits may be seen as a natural part of human behavior rather than moral failings.

• Thomas Hobbes believed that humans are naturally self-interested and in a state of constant conflict without social order, leading to the need for a strong central authority to maintain peace (Social Contract Theory). HE famously described life without law as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Hobbes argued that societal structures are necessary to curb these natural tendencies.

What are religious beliefs about freewill?

• a liberal Christian can believe in the concept of free will as well as a omniscient God, affirming that individuals have the ability to make choices independent of divine predestination. This belief holds that humans are morally accountable for their actions, allowing them to choose between good and evil.

• They believe freewill allows for genuine relationships with God, as love and goodness must be chosen freely rather than imposed. This perspective contrasts with determinism, suggesting that while God knows all outcomes, human choice remains intact.

• Theological determinism suggests that God controls all aspects of creation, including human decisions, and that everything that happens is a necessary consequence of His will.Strong theological determinism implies that free will is an illusion, and God has absolute control over everything. Determinism is often not compatible with the belief in free will, as it suggests that our choices are predetermined. But without free will we have no responsibility over our actions and no way to have a relationship with God. Gottfried Leibniz was a theological determinist.

• St Augustine believed in predestination as a divine foreknowledge of who will be saved or damned, highlighting a tension between free will and God's sovereignty.

What are religious beliefs about freewill?

• Hard determinism is the belief that all events, including moral choices, are predetermined. Hard determinists believe that every choice you make is not from free will but from all the events from your birth only allowing you to make one choice. Since everything is predetermined we are not morally responsible for our decisions

• Libertarianism is the belief in free will where individuals have complete control over their actions and choices, and thus can be held morally responsible. It emphasizes personal autonomy and the idea that not all actions are determined by prior causes and we are only restricted by the laws for the universe. This means we have moral responsibility.

• Soft determinism is the belief that while our choices may be influenced by external factors, humans still possess the capacity for free will within the framework of determinism. It reconciles free will with determinism, suggesting that persons can make choices based on their desires and motivations, even if these are shaped by prior events n they are shaped by prior choices. Immmanuel Kant was a soft determinist.

What are religious views towards ultimate reality?

• Christians believe in the Trinity, the kingdom of human and divine and being with God after death.

• Similarly, Hindus believe in Brahman as the ultimate reality and source of all existence, which manifests in various forms, including deities.

• Buddhists perceive ultimate reality as the state of Nirvana, the liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth. They also believe in the 3 marks of existence — impermanence, suffering, and non-self— which inform their understanding of reality.

What are non religious views towards ultimate reality?

• Materialism/ physicalism often leads to Nihilism about the nature of human existence (we die and that’s the end) which asserts that only physical matter exists and denies any inherent meaning or purpose in life.

• Another view is Naturalism, which posits that everything can be explained through natural laws and phenomena without involving supernatural elements. This perspective emphasizes science and reason as the primary means of understanding reality.

• Additionally, Existentialism suggests that individuals must create their own meaning in a universe that lacks inherent purpose, advocating for personal freedom and responsibility in defining one's existence.

What are the attributes of the Abrahamic God? What problems does this present?

The Abrahamic God is often characterized by being omnipotent (all-powerful), omniscient (all-knowing), benevolent (all-good), and transcendent (beyond the physical realm). Additionally, God is seen as personal, capable of having a relationship with believers, and immanent, being present in the world. much of this and the nature of the trinity is found in the Nicene Creed.

St Thomas Aquinas believes God can do anything possible to do and that the problem of omnipotence (can God create a rock too heavy for himself to lift) is just human confusion on the definition of omnipotence

The mystery of the trinity is a complex theological concept that raises questions about the nature of God and His unity, leading to debates about how three distinct persons (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit) can coexist as one God without contradicting the principle of monotheism. (Hinduism gets around Brahman as their divine with diffuse monism)

What are reasons for not being religious?

• Richard Dawkins thought religious belief was irrational due to its lack of good evidence (and you shouldn’t believe in something without good evidence) and therefore you should abandon any beleif in God. good evidence for Dawkins was scientific evidence

• Karl Marx viewed religion as the "opium of the masses," suggesting it distracts from social injustices and inequalities, inhibiting real change and progress in society

• Additionally, Sigmund Freud considered religion a form of psychological projection, a way for humans to cope with existential anxieties and unresolved conflicts, viewing belief in God as a manifestation of the need for comfort.

• The cruel world argument is the idea that suffering and injustice in the world not only by humans but by nature are incompatible with the existence of a benevolent deity, leading individuals to question the validity of religious beliefs.

What are reasons for being religious? What are reasons against the arguments?

• William Paleys design (teleological) argument suggests that the complexity and order in the universe imply the existence of a designer, much like a watch implies a watchmaker. This argument posits that the intricate workings of nature are best understood as evidence of a divine creator who has a purpose for creation.

• David Hume had an issue with the teleological argument: the design argument does not prove 1 great designer (one God), god doesn’t need to still be here he might’ve given up on us, God designed good and bad so prehaps God (the creator of parasitic wasps) is bad too, you can like a human eye to something not made eg. a dandilion.

  Also evolution and natural selection introduced by Charles Darwin pose a serious threat as it allows for nothing to have been made (perfectly) in the first place (this is compelling as often the human body does not work in the most efficient way but rather the way that emerged over time with the threat of natural selection). Charles Darwin also doubted God due to thinking a omnibenevolent creator would never make ‘evil’ parasitic Ichneumon wasps

• The first cause (cosmological) argument by St Thomas Aquinas asserts that everything that exists has a cause, and tracing these causes back leads to the necessity of an uncaused first cause, which is identified as God. This philosophical reasoning supports the belief in the existence of a deity as the foundation of all existence.

• The Big Bang theory can actually work well with the first cause argument for conservative or liberal Christian’s but does post a conflict for literalist Christians

  Also if God made the world, who made God? Aquinas him self said that ‘nothing comes from nothing’ And you can’t just change your mind halfway through and argument and also you cant logically cause yourself

  David Hume had a issue with the cosmological argument as well as the teleological argument and said that there was a logistical mistake because the property of one thing in a group doesn’t mean everything in that group has that property

What is the problem of evil?

The problem of evil refers to the philosophical and theological dilemma of reconciling the existence of evil and suffering in the world with the belief in an all-powerful, all-good, and all-knowing God. It challenges the nature of God's goodness and omnipotence, raising questions about why a benevolent deity would allow such suffering to occur.

Epicurus was a material atomistic who thought God couldn’t possibly be omnipotent and omnibenevolet and JL Marie coined the term inconsistent triad

What religious beliefs about the problem of evil and suffering?

• the Irenean-Hick soul making theodicy Irenaus argues that suffering serves a purpose in the growth and development of the soul. It posits that challenges and adversities are necessary for spiritual growth and moral development, helping individuals to make choices that lead to a closer relationship with God.

• The free will response suggests that evil and suffering are the result of human free will, emphasizing that a world with free will allows for genuine love and goodness, but also the potential for moral evil. This view argues that God permits suffering to respect human autonomy and maintain the significance of moral choices. (It starts with the fall of Adam and Eve and humanity)

• Augustines soul deciding theodicy argues that suffering is a consequence of original sin, asserting that God allows it as a way to bring about a greater good, ultimately leading to salvation and restoring the fallen state of humanity.

• The devils fault argument The devil's fault argument asserts that some suffering and evil result from the actions of supernatural beings, like the devil or demons, who oppose God and lead humans into sin, suggesting that God permits their influence for a greater purpose in the grand narrative of salvation. (Who made the devil? Argument contrasts with in the beginning there was nothing and monotheism if God made the devil)

• Leibniz argued that this is the best of all possible worlds, meaning that the presence of evil serves a greater purpose that humans may not fully comprehend.