Grade VIII - Term 2 revision

Manufacturing Industries

Converts raw materials into finished products on a larger scale using physical labour and mechanical power.

Manufactured goods

More valuable than the original raw material

Evolution of Industry

• Industrial revolution in the 18th century

• Machines operated on power generated from coal

• Manual and animal labour reduced

• Large scale industries

• Other sources of power - Petroleum, Hydroelectricity

Stages of production in an industry

• Obtaining raw material

• Processing into a finished product

• Distribution

Classification of industries

• Based on size

• Based on raw materials

• Based on ownership

• Based on products

Types of industries based on size

• Cottage industries

• Small scale industries

• Large scale industries

Cottage industries

• Goods made with the help of family members at home

• Little Capital

• Local raw materials

• Simple tools

• Eg -pottery, baskets, jewelry, and jams

Small scale industries

• Some labor and power-driven machinery

• Raw materials from local and outside

• Employ a large section of the population

• Eg - Textiles, ceramics, toys, and leather goods

Large scale industries

• Huge capital

• Employs 1000s of labourers

• Power driven heavy machinery

• Imported raw materials

• Finish good can be exported

• Separate departments for different operations

  • Eg - Iron and steel, petrochemical and cement industry.

Types of industries based on raw materials

• Agro-based - From agriculture. Eg - Sugar, jute textile

• Mineral-based - rocks and minerals. Eg - Iron and steel.

• Pastoral-based - From animals. Eg - Woolen textiles and dairy products.

• Marine-based - From aquatic animals. Eg - Fish processing.

• Forest-based — From forests. Eg - Timber, Paper.

Types of industries based on end products

• Basic industries

• Intermediate goods industries

• Consumer goods industries

Types of industries based on ownership

• Private

• Public

• Joint

• Co-operative

Private sector industries

Owned and managed by an individuals or group of individuals.

Eg - Tata Iron and Steel Industry, Reliance Industries

Public sector industries

Owned and managed by central or state governments or their agencies.

Eg - Steel Authority of India Ltd. , Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.

Joint sector industries

Owned and managed jointly by private firms and government agencies.

Eg - Oil India Ltd. and Gujarat Alkalies

Cooperative sector industries

Owned and managed by a group of people who form their own co-operative society.

Eg - Sugar mills, Dairy cooperatives and handloom industries.

Factors influencing the location of the industry

• Availability of raw material

• Power supply

• Labour

• Transport

• Market

• Capital

• Water supply

• Land

• Climate

• Government policy

Global industrial regions

• Eastern part of North America

• Western and Central Europe

• Eastern Europe

• Eastern Asia

Indian industrial regions

• Mumbai - Pune region

• Hugli Basin region

• Bengaluru - Tamil Nadu region

• Gujarat region

• Chhota Nagpur region

• Vishakapatnam - Guntur region

• Gurgaon - Delhi - Meerut region

• Kollam - Thiruvananthapuram region

Revolt of 1857

Considered the First War of independence

Political causes of revolt of 1857

• Lord Dalhousie’s policy of Doctrine of Lapse curbed the adoption rights of the ruling class

• The annexation of Awadh angered Hindus and Muslims

• The disrespect shown towards Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah

• Exclusion of Indians from high-paying civil and military jobs

Subedar

Highest post an Indian could get in the army for 60 - 70 rupees per month

Sadar Amin

Highest post in civil services an Indian could get for Rs. 500 a month

Economic causes of Revolt of 1857

• Destruction of cottage industries

• Commercialization of agriculture destroyed the self-sufficient village economy

• Weavers and artisans received minimal remuneration ( Salary)

• Machine-made products from England flourished making the artisans unemployed

Social and religious causes of Revolt of 1857

• Fear of getting converted by the Christian Missionaries who entered India through the Charter Act of 1813

• Changing of customs and traditions - Abolishment of Sati and female infanticide, and encouraging widow remarriage.

• Imposition of taxes on land with temples and mosques.

Military causes of Revolt of 1857

Soldiers of Bengal army were offended by the annexation of Awadh

Army was asked to take an oath that they would fight for British overseas whenever asked to ( Sea travel was not allowed in some religions)

No extra remuneration for sepoys when they fought in distant lands

Low salaries of sepoys did not fulfil their basic needs

Immediate cause of Revolt of 1857

• Introduction of Enfield rifle which required the soldiers to bite the greased cartridge before usage.

• Rumour - the greased cartridges were made od cow/pig fat.

  • Refused to work as it hurt religious sentiments.

Spread of the Revolt

• Several regiments in Barrackpur and Meerut were disbanded and punished after the soldiers refused to use these cartridges.

• Mangal Pandey - marched with his comrades to revolt. He was executed.

• Nana Saheb - leader of the revolt in Kanpur

• Rani Lakshmi Bhai - Jhansi

• Kunwar Singh - Bihar

• Begum Hazrat Mahal - Lucknow

  • Tantia Tope - Gwalior

Suppression of the Revolt

• Lord Canning - Governor-General took immediate steps

• Forces of Madras, Bombay, Sri Lanka, Burma and Sikh were asked to proceed to Delhi.

• Two sons of Bahadur Shah were killed

• Bahadur Shah was deported to Rangoon as a prisoner

• Rani Lakshmi Bhai joined Tantia Tope in Gwalior.

• Lakshmi Bhai - killed in a battle and Tantia Tope was executed.

  • Nana Saheb and Hazarat Mahal fled to Nepal and died there

Failure of the revolt

• Limited scope - Delhi, Meerut, Bihar whereas Punjab and the southern regions remained aloof.

• Lack of planning by a single central organization

• Lack of military skills to match that of the British forces.

• Rulers of Nepal, Patiala, Jind, and Hyderabad supported the British.

• The educated and upper-middle-class Indians did not support the rebels, but the British.

Changes after 1857

• British EIC rule came to an end

• Secretary of State and the Indian Council were created

• The army was reorganized with an increased proportion of British soldiers

• The policy of territorial annexation ended.

• The unconditional pardon was given to rebels except those responsible for the murder of British subjects.

• Government of India Act 1858

Patshaalas

Network of elementary schools in India before British rule

Maktabs and madrasas

Higher education in India were conducted through these institutions before British rule

First institutions set up in India by the British

• Calcutta Madrasa for Muslim law set up by Warren Hastings

• Sanskrit College for Hindu Law and Philosophy was established by Jonathan Duncan

• Fort William College for the training of civil servants of the company

Non-intervention policy of EIC

EIC did not want to interfere in the education system in India

• Christian missionaries wanted EIC to give up this policy a it would help them lose faith in their religion and follow Christianity

Charter Act of 1813 and education

• No mention of the medium of instruction

• Ambiguous about the target audience

Orientalists

• Supported the promotion of Indian education through the medium of classical languages like Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian.

• William Jones, Nathaniel Halhed, and Henry Colebrooke

Anglicists

• Promotion of Western languages through the medium of English

• Enlightened Indians - Raja Ram Mohan Roy - saw Western education as a remedy for social, political and economic evils.

• Thomas Babington Macaulay

Macaulay’s minute

• Limited government resources for teaching western sciences and literature though the medium of instruction - English

• Persian as court language was abolished

• Printing of English books - made free

• 42 schools were set up

• Bengal had 9 zones with one government school in each set up by Governor-General Auckland

Wood’s Despatch

• Charles Wood

• Magna Carta of English Education in India

• Education of the masses

• Graded schools with hierarchies - Universities, colleges, high school, middle school, and primary school.

• English - medium for higher studies and Indian languages - school level

• Emphasis on female and vocational education

• Secular education in government institutions

• Grants-in aids for private enterprises

• Universities in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta

Hunter Commission

• Under W W Hunter

• To review the progress of education after Wood’s Despatch

• Recommendations to primary and secondary education

• Setting up of Punjab and Allahabad University

Raleigh Commission

• Measure to improve the conditions of Indian universities

• Indian Universities Act was passed

• Nationalists were against it - as they saw it as a way to make Indians loyal to the British

Wardha scheme of education

• Formation of Zakir Hussain Committee

• Detailed national scheme for basic education

• Main principle - “Learning through activity”

• Gandhian ideas published in series of articles in the weekly journal called Harijan

Limitations of British policies for education in India

• Mass education and education of women were neglected leading to widespread illiteracy ( Inefficiency of downward filtration theory)

• Wide linguistic and cultural gap between the educated and the non-educated

• Decline of traditional system of Indian learning

• Applicants of government jobs were required to know English

• No scientific or technological education for Indians

Practices - Social and religious evils

• Sati

• Infanticide

• Purdah

• Devadasi system

• Polygamy

• Child marriage

• Illiteracy

Social reformers

• Raja Ram Mohan ROy

• Ishwar Chandra Vidya Sagar

• Keshab Chandra Sen

• Mahadev Govind Ranade

• Dayanand Saraswati

• Jyotibha Phule

• Pandita Ramabhai

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

• Social reformer

• Father of modern India

• Champion of women’s rights

• Established Brahmo Samaj for social welfare

• Campaigned against sati, child marriage polygamy, caste distinctions, and untouchability

• Attacked by orthodox Hindus for his campaign against sati

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

• Worked for female education

• Set up 35 schools for girls

• Set up the first Indian school for girls in Calcutta

• Opposed polygamy and child marriage

• Campaigned to legalise widow remarriage

• He supervised the first widow remarriage of upper caste in Calcutta

Swami Vivekananda

• Founder of Ramakrishna Mission

  • Emphasis on spiritualism and empowerment of women

Social reformers in Maharashtra

• Prarthana Samaj

• Mahadev Govind Ranade and R G Bhandarker

• Behramji Malabari - Articles in “The Times” on the evils of child marriage and widowhood.

• D K Karve - Educated women to become teachers at girls’ school in Poona

• Jyotiba Phule with his wife started a girls’ school at Poona

Swami Dayanand

• Found Arya Samaj

• Encouraged female education by establishing Kanaya gurukuls

Pandita Ramabhai

• Educated in Sanskrit texts

• Widow at a young age

• Worked with Arya Mahila Sabha

• Established Sharda Sadan - A school for Indian widows

Sarojini Naidu

• Worked for women’s right

• Associated with All India Women’s Conference

Reason for the spread of caste movements

• Spread of education among the oppressed classes

• Forming associations that assumed all India status to safeguard themselves from oppression

Reasons for the growth of national consciousness

• Economic exploitation of the Indian by the British

• The rise of press and literature

• Improvement in transport and communication also contributed to the emergence of nationalism

Early associations

• The Landholder’s Society, Calcutta

• Bengal British India Society

• Madras Native Association

• Bombay Association

• Indian National Congress

Indian National Congress

• Founded in 1885

• Founded by A O Hume - a retired civil service officer

• Womesh Chandra Banerjee - first president

• Moderates and Extremists

Moderates

• Educated classes

• Submitted petitions ansd prayers to put forward concerns

• Demands - Indianisation of civil service, increased participation in legislative assembly and more funds for educating Indians

• Used constitutional methods

• Humble and mild criticism of the British

Extremists

• Lost faith in British government

• Opposed the ideologies of Moderates

• Highest goal - attainment of colonial form of self government

• Ideal - Poorna swaraj - complete independence

• Balgangadar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai

Partition of Bengal

• Announced by Lord Curzon

• Separate province for East Bengal and Assam - Muslims

• West Bengal - Bengali Hindus

• Purpose was told to be better administration

Swadeshi Movement

• Boycott of British goods

• Promotion of Indian goods

• Establishment of textile mills, national banks, chemical works, and insurance companie.

• Women participants

• Most active - School boys and girls

• Processions and meetings were banned - repression of the movement by the British

• Leaders were imprisoned

Muslim League

• Salimulla Khan and Aga Khan - founded the Muslim League

• To get a separate electorate for Muslims

Surat Split

The Extremists left the Indian National Congress in the Surat Session

Revolutionaries

• Used violent means to get independence

• Formed secret societies, manufactured bombs, and imported other weapons from other countries

• Assassination of British officials

• spread revolutionary ideas through newspapers and pamphlets

Revolutionary Ideas outside India

• Ghadar Party in America - San Francisco

Morley - Minto reforms

• Increase in the number of members of legislative councils

• Introduction of separate electorates for Muslims

  • Extremists leaders thought that seprate electorate would harm the harmony

Lucknow Pact of 1916

• Muslims were upset because of the war between Britain and Turkey.

• Muslim League rejoined the Indian National Congress along with the Extremists

Montague-Chelmsford Reforms

• Adoption of a more liberal policy towards Indians by the British after the Indians helped Britain in the First World War

• Central legislature - Council of the State( Upper House ) and Legislstive Assembly ( Lower House)

• System of dyarchy - Sharing of power by Indian elected members and appointed British officials

• Minorities like Sikhs, Anglo-Indians and Christians - separate electorates

Gandhi and Non-violent satyagraha movement

• Champaran - fought for Indigo planters

• Ahmedabad - Settlement of disputes between mill owners and employers

• Kheda - struggle of revenue collection

Rowlatt Satyagraha

• Government - broke processions and meetings, lathi charge and opened fire at different places

• Protest at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar

• General Dyer - opened fire and killed hundreds and injured thousands

• Rabrinath Tagore and Gandhi returned their titles of Knighthood and Kesar-i-Hind.

Khilafat Movement

• Khalifa - leader of Muslims all over the world

• Maulana Ali and Shaukat Ali formed the Khilafat committee to organise a nation wide agitation against the compromise of the position of Khalifa

Non-Cooperation Movement

• Khilafat Committee merged with the Indian National Congress

• Surrendering of all titles, resigning from nominated seats in local bodies

• Refusal to attend govt functions

• Withdrawal of students from govt schools and colleges

• Boycott of British courts by lawyers

• boycott of elections and foreign goods

Suspension of Non-Cooperation Movement

Came to an end after the Chauri Chaura incident - a police station was burnt in UP

Congress Khilafat Swaraj Party

Formed by CR Das and Motilal Nehru to stand in elections to end the Act of 1919

Simon Comission

• Headed by Sir John Simon to prepare a report on the wokring of dyarchy in India

• Congress boycotted this committee as there was no Indian in it

• Country-wide hartal/ strike with the slogan - “ GO BACK SIMON”

Nehru Report

• Lord Birkenhead challenged Nehr to draft a constitution

• Proposals included:

  :: Dominion status for India

  :: Responsible governments - centre and at state

  :: Residuary powers with Central
  :: Central parliament - two houses and state legislative assembly with one house
  :: A committee of defense at the center
  :: Joint electorates with reservation of seats

  :: North-West frontier reservations for non-muslims
  :; Fundamental rights incorporation

Civil Disobedience Movement

• Launched by Mahatma Gandhi

• Dandi March or Salt Satyagraha from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi

Government Repression

• Gandhi-Irwin Pact in the Second Round Table Conference

Indian National Army

• Also known as Azad Hind Fauj

• Founded by Subash Chandra Bose

• Gained support from Japanese army adn marched towards Delhi with the slogan Chalo Dilli

Post 1945 developments

• Labour Party in power - Clement Atlee Prime Minsiter in Britain

• Sympathetic towards Indians

• Division of India - Pakistan and India

• Lord Mountbatten -First Governor General of India

• Jinnah - First Governor General of Pakistan

• Dr. Rajendra Prasad - President of Constituent Assembly

• B R Ambedkar - Head of Drafting Committee

• Constitution of India came into force on 26 Jan 1950

Division of power between the state and union governments

• Union list - Subjects on which only the union government can make laws. Eg - Finance and foreign relations

• State list - Subjects on which only state governments can make laws. Eg - Housing and transport

• Concurrent list - Subjects on which both the govts can make laws. If there is a clash - central law will prevail.

The President

• Head of the Indian union in whom all the executive power rests

• Nominal head who acts with the aid of the council of ministers headed by the Prime Minister

The Union Legislature

• The Parliament - The President, The Council of States ( Rajya Sabha/ Upper House) and The House of People ( Lok Sabha/ Lower House)

• Members knowns as Members of Parliament - MPs

• Has to meet atleast twice in a year.

• Summoned and closed by the President

Lok Sabha

• Lower House

• Members elected through universal adult franchise

• More powerful in a democracy as the power resides with people

• Maximum - 550 members

• 530 - states and 20 - Union territories

• Reservations for SCs and STs

Eligibility criteria to be a member of Lok Sabha

• Citizen of India

• At least 25 years old

• Not be bankrupt or mentally unsound

• Not hold any other govt job

Elections to be a member of Lok Sabha

• Territories divided into constituencies

• Divided based on population

• Candidates can be from a political party or an independent candidate

• Voting - done by secret ballot

• One representative from each constituency - with maximum vites is selected

Election Commission

The independent body that conducts elections to the Indian legislature under the provisions of the Constitution

Formation of government

• The party with the majority of seats - Ruling party

• Leader of the ruling party - The Prime Minister

• Other parties - opposition party - criticises the policies of the ruling party

Term of Lok Sabha

• 5 years

• The President may dissolve if the ruling party loses its majority due to interim elections

• The term can be extended by one year during emergency

Presiding officer of Lok Sabha

• Speaker - conducts the proceedings of the house and maintains order. Exercises an vote at the end if there is a tie

• Deputy Speaker - Carries out the duties of the speaker in the absence of the speaker

Rajya Sabha

• Upper House

• Represents the State and Union Territories

• Reflect the interest of the states

• Maximum members - 250

• 12 members nominated by the President from various fields like literature, science, art, and social service.

• 238 members - from States and Union Territories

• The number of members from each state and UTs - Based on population

Eligibility criteria to become a member of Rajya Sabha

• Citizen of India

• At least 30 years old

• Not be bankrupt or mentally unsound

• Not hold any other govt job

Elections for Rajya Sabha

Elected by the elected representatives of the legislative assembly of the state.

Term of Rajya Sabha

• Permanent House

• Cannot be dissolved

• 1/3rd members retire every 2 years

• Equal number of members elected in their place

• Term - 6 years

Presiding officer of Rajya Sabha

• Vice President - ex-officio chairman - presides the meeting

• In case of a tie - cast a vote on decisions

• Deputy chairman - elected from one of its members - exercises the proceedings in the absence of the Chairman

Legislative powers of the Parliament

• Makes laws on subjects on the union, concurrent and residuary list

• Law introduced in the form of a bill. ( Money/ Constitution Amendment/ Ordinary bills)

• Approval of both houses - Passing of a bill

• Money bill can only be initiated by the Lok Sabha

• Voting in joint meeting of both houses - when there is a difference in decisions

Executive Powers of the Parliament

• Questioning ministers about policies and actions during question hour in both houses

• If ministers fail to give satisfactory answers - the house may pass a no-confidence against them - Minister has to resign (Only Lok Sabha)

• Lok Sabha has more effective control than Rajya Sabha as it can pass a no-confidence motion and Rajya Sabha cannot

Financial Powers of the Parliament

• Control over union finances

• Budget is presented

• Finance bill is also introduced

• Proposal for new taxes and changes in existing taxes

Parliament’s Power to amend the Constitution

• Some articles in the Constitution can be amended by a simple majority

• 2/3rd majority in both the houses needed

Judicial powers of the Constitution

• The Parliament can remove the President, Vice President of India through the process of impeachment

• Recommendations to remove Judge of the Supreme/ High court, Election Commissioner and the Auditor General.