SOC150 Midterm

Informal Observation

Occurs when we make observations without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of what we observed​. It is a way of knowing that is based on everyday experiences and casual noticing of patterns or behaviors, rather than through structured scientific methods

Ex: Noticing that students who sit in the front row get called on more often in class

Selective Observation

Happens when we only notice patterns that align with our expectations or beliefs while ignoring contradicting evidence​

Ex: Believing that “all politicians are corrupt” and only paying attention to news stories about corrupt politicians while ignoring stories about honest ones

Overgeneralization

Occurs when we assume that a broad pattern exists based on limited observations​

Ex: Meeting one rude person from a city and concluding that “everyone from that city is rude.”

Research Method

A systematic process of inquiry used to learn about the social world​. They involve organized steps to collect, analyze, and interpret data.

Ex: Conducting surveys to study how social media affects students' study habits.

Authority

A socially defined source of knowledge that influences our beliefs about what is true and not true

Ex: Believing that a certain diet is the healthiest because a doctor said so, without questioning or verifying the information.

Ontology

Refers to one's analytical perspective on the nature of reality—what exists and what can be known about it​

Ex: A sociologist who believes that social structures (like class or gender) shape human behavior follows an ontological view that reality is external and objective

Epistemology

The study of how we know what we know; it concerns the best ways to uncover knowledge and determine what counts as valid evidence​

Ex: A researcher using interviews to understand people’s experiences believes that knowledge is best gained through personal narratives rather than statistics

Basic Research

Research conducted to expand general knowledge and develop theories without a specific practical application in mind​

Ex: Studying how social media influences human interaction patterns without aiming to create a new app or policy

Applied Research

Research conducted to solve real-world problems or inform policy and practice

Ex: Studying the effects of social media on mental health to develop guidelines for reducing screen time

Public Sociology

Applies sociological theories and research to matters of public interest, engaging with broader audiences beyond academia​

Ex: A sociologist writing an article for a news outlet about how social media affects political participation

Qualitative Methods

Research techniques that collect non-numerical data, such as words, images, or observations, to understand social phenomena in depth​

Ex: Conducting in-depth interviews with students to explore their experiences with online learning.

Quantitative Methods

Research techniques that collect numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and statistical trends​

Ex: Surveying 500 students to measure the correlation between study hours and GPA

Census

An organized, logical way to gather data about ethnic and racial diversity at local and national scales

Ex: We can use census data to find relationships between racial/ethnic origin and poverty rates

Positivism

A research paradigm that assumes society can be studied using objective, scientific methods to uncover general laws of behavior

Ex: A sociologist using surveys and statistics to study the relationship between education levels and income

Interpretivism / Social Constructionism

A research paradigm that focus on the ways people understand themselves, others, and the world around them

Ex: The idea of "success" is socially constructed because different cultures define it in various ways, such as wealth, education, or community contributions

Paradigm

An analytic lens, a way of viewing the world, and a framework from which to view human experience

Ex: Ontological and Epistemological approaches

Critical Approaches

Focus on power, inequality, and social change, arguing that social science should not be value-free but should challenge oppression and injustice​

Ex: A sociologist studying how media reinforces racial stereotypes to advocate for more diverse representation

Postmodernist Approaches

Challenge the idea of objective truth, arguing that knowledge is socially constructed and shaped by power, language, and historical context

Ex: A researcher analyzing how social media creates multiple, shifting identities rather than a single, stable self

Functionalism

A sociological theory that views society as a system of interconnected parts, each serving a function to maintain stability and order​

Ex: Schools educate individuals, preparing them for the workforce, which helps maintain a functioning economy

Conflict Theory

Views society as composed of groups competing for limited resources, with social structures maintaining power and inequality​

Ex: The wealthy influencing government policies to reduce taxes on the rich while keeping wages low for workers

Symbolic Interactionism

A sociological perspective that focuses on how individuals create and interpret meaning through social interactions and symbols

Ex: A handshake can symbolize a greeting, agreement, or respect, depending on the context

Inductive Reasoning

A research approach that starts with specific observations and then develops broader theories or patterns based on the data​

Ex: Observing that several students perform better in class after group study sessions and then forming a theory that collaborative learning improves academic performance

Deductive Reasoning

A research approach that starts with a general theory or hypothesis and then tests it through specific observations or data collection

Ex: A researcher starts with the hypothesis that "exercise improves mental health" and then conducts a study to test if people who exercise regularly report lower stress levels

Micro Level

Focuses on small-scale social interactions between individuals or small groups​

Ex: Knowing gang members’ experiences and how they differ from the prevailing stereotypes about young Black men devaluing education and preferring gang life

Meso Level

Examines social structures, institutions, and organizations that connect individuals to larger social forces

Ex: Analyzing the interactions within and between different gangs and how gangs were moving in a “corporatist” direction, where factions of the gang were similar to a corporate franchise in which members held offices and specific roles

Macro Level

Examines large-scale social structures, systems, and institutions that shape society as a whole

Ex: Analyzing how shifts in the social and economic order of American society results in changes in gang organization

Exploratory Research

Research conducted to investigate a relatively unknown topic, generate new ideas, and identify potential patterns for further study​

Ex: Interviewing gig workers to understand their experiences before developing a broader study on the gig economy

Committed Father

Proactively and consciously contest gender boundaries

Ex: I try not to use gendered language to children. [...] My wife and I have decided to educate our children this way, but [...] they do learn it from their friends and teachers at preschool

Conflicted Father

Hold flexible views about men and women’s roles when they take leave, but still hold rigid views about children’s gender socialization

Ex: There should be no distinction between women’s roles and men’s role [...] I hope [my son] also embodies some of more traditional understanding of manliness, [so I tell him things like] ‘men shouldn’t cry,’ ‘you need to go to the military to protect the country.

Receptive Father

Somewhere between: they had egalitarian views, but weren’t as proactive as the committed fathers

Ex: At the very least, I think my child is growing up without stereotypes that it is mom’s job to feed him, change his diaper, or do housework

Descriptive Research

Aims to systematically describe characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena without exploring causes​

Ex: Surveying college students to measure the average number of hours they spend on social media per day

Causality

Refers to the idea that one event, behavior, or belief will result in the occurrence of another, subsequent event, behavior, or belief. In other words, it is about cause and effect

Ex: Increased study time leads to higher exam scores, assuming no other factors influence the results

Explanatory Research

Seeks to identify the causes and effects of social phenomena by examining relationships between variables

Ex: Studying how parental income influences a student's likelihood of attending college

Research Question

A clear, focused, and specific question that guides a study by identifying what the researcher aims to investigate​

Ex: "How does social media usage affect academic performance among college students?"

Ideographic Research

Aims to provide a deep, detailed understanding of a specific case, individual, or small group rather than generalizing to a larger population

Ex: A case study exploring the life experiences of a refugee adjusting to a new country

Nomothetic Research

Seeks to identify general patterns, laws, or broad explanations that apply to large groups or populations​

Ex: A nationwide survey analyzing the relationship between income level and job satisfaction

Plausibility

Refers to the logical credibility of a proposed relationship between variables, meaning the explanation makes sense and is theoretically reasonable

Ex: A study suggesting that higher education leads to better job opportunities is plausible because education provides skills and qualifications valued in the job market

Temporality

For a causal relationship to exist, the cause must occur before the effect in time​

Ex: A researcher studying the impact of exercise on weight loss must ensure that increased physical activity happens before the weight loss, not the other way around

Spuriousness

Occurs when two variables appear to be related, but their relationship is actually caused by a third variable​

Ex: Ice cream sales and drowning incidents increase at the same time, but the real cause is the third variable—hot weather

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables, indicating that they change together, but it does not necessarily imply causation​

Ex: People who exercise more tend to have lower stress levels, but this does not mean exercise directly causes lower stress—other factors like diet or sleep may be involved

Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated or categorized to examine its effect on a dependent variable​

Ex: In a study on how sleep affects test scores, sleep duration is the independent variable

Dependent Variable

The outcome or effect that is measured in a study to see how it is influenced by the independent variable​

Ex: In a study on how sleep affects test scores, test score is the dependent variable

Unit of Analysis

The main entity being studied in research, such as individuals, groups, organizations, or social phenomena​

Ex: In a study on how social media impacts mental health, the individual (social media user) is the unit of analysis

Unit of Observation

Refers to the specific items or cases from which data are collected in a study​

Ex: In a study on workplace culture, employee interviews are the unit of observation, while the company may be the unit of analysis

Ecological Fallacy

Occurs when conclusions about individuals are drawn from group-level data, assuming that all individuals in the group share the same characteristics​

Ex: Concluding that a student is wealthy just because they attend an expensive private university

Reductionism

Occurs when complex social phenomena are explained solely by a single factor, oversimplifying the reality

Ex: Claiming that poverty is caused only by a lack of education, ignoring other factors like economic policies, job availability, and systemic inequality

Hypothesis

A testable statement predicting the relationship between two or more variables in a research study​

Ex: "Students who sleep at least 7 hours before an exam will score higher than those who sleep less."

Null Hypothesis

States that there is no relationship or effect between the variables being studied, meaning any observed association is due to chance​

Ex: "There is no difference in exam scores between students who sleep 7 hours and those who sleep less."

Informed Concent

The voluntary agreement of a research participant, given after they have been fully informed about the study's purpose, procedures, risks, and their right to withdraw at any time​

Ex: Before participating in a psychological study, a student signs a form acknowledging they understand the study's details and agree to participate

Anonymity

Means that a participant's identity is completely unknown and cannot be linked to their responses or data in a study​

Ex: In an online survey about mental health, no names or identifying details are collected, ensuring that responses remain anonymous

Measurement

The process of defining and quantifying concepts or variables in a study to systematically collect and analyze data​

Ex: Using a Likert scale (1-5) to measure students' stress levels during exams

Concept

An abstract idea or general notion that represents a category of meaning in social research​

Ex: Culture, class, masculinity, neoliberalism,

multiculturalism

Conceptualization

The process of defining a concept by specifying its meaning and dimensions in a research study​

Ex: Defining "social inequality" in terms of income disparity, educational access, and healthcare availability

Hegemonic Masculinity

The dominant form of masculinity in a given society that legitimizes male power and maintains gender inequalities

Reification

The mistake of treating an abstract concept as if it were a concrete, real entity with a physical existence​

Ex: When people say things like “society expects us to behave a certain way” or “the market is reacting”, they are reifying. They are attributing agency to an idea that humans made up

To avoid reification, avoid attributing independent will to a human creation: “most people expect us to behave a certain way”, “stock prices are fluctuating”

Operationalization

The process of defining how a concept will be measured in a study by specifying the indicators or variables used

Ex: To measure "social inequality," a researcher might use income levels, access to education, and employment rates as indicators

Indicators

Specific, measurable variables that represent a concept in a research study​

Ex: For the concept of "mental health," indicators could include stress levels, frequency of therapy visits, and self-reported happiness scores

Reliability

Refers to the consistency and stability of a measurement tool—whether it produces the same results when repeated under similar conditions

Ex: A personality test is reliable if a person gets the same result when taking it multiple times under the same conditions

Validity

Refers to how accurately a measurement tool or method measures what it is intended to measure​

Ex: A math test has high validity if it actually measures math skills rather than reading ability

Variable

Any characteristic, factor, or attribute that can change or vary within a research study

Ex: Income level is a variable that can range from low to high in a study on economic inequality

Nominal Measures

Classify variables into distinct categories without any meaningful order or ranking​

Ex: Marital status (single, married, divorced, widowed) is a nominal measure because the categories have no inherent ranking

Ordinal Measures

Classify variables into categories that have a meaningful order or ranking, but the intervals between them are not equal​

Ex: Education level (high school, bachelor's, master's, PhD) is an ordinal measure because the categories are ranked, but the difference between them is not uniform

Interval Measures

Classify variables with ordered categories where the intervals between values are equal, but there is no true zero point​

Ex: Temperature in Celsius is an interval measure because the difference between 20°C and 30°C is the same as between 30°C and 40°C, but 0°C does not mean "no temperature”

Ratio Measures

Classify variables with equal intervals between values and a true zero point, meaning absence of the measured characteristic​

Ex: Income is a ratio measure because $0 represents no income, and $50,000 is twice as much as $25,000