Learning, Memory, and Language Concepts

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between stimuli.

Pavlov's Experiment

Dogs learned to associate a bell with food, leading to salivation.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Natural reaction to US (e.g., salivation to food).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral, but triggers response after association (e.g., bell).

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

Generalization

Responding similarly to similar stimuli (e.g., different bell tones).

Discrimination

Differentiating between similar stimuli (e.g., only responding to a specific bell).

Overjustification Effect

When an external reward reduces intrinsic motivation.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences of behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something pleasant (e.g., giving candy for good behavior).

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant (e.g., removing chores for good behavior).

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant (e.g., extra homework for talking in class).

Negative Punishment

Removing something pleasant (e.g., taking away a phone for breaking rules).

Fixed Ratio

Reward after a set number of responses (e.g., paid after selling 10 items).

Fixed Interval

Reward after a set time (e.g., paycheck every 2 weeks).

Variable Ratio

Reward after unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines).

Variable Interval

Reward after unpredictable time (e.g., pop quizzes).

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Learning through observing others (e.g., Bobo doll experiment).

Encoding

Getting information into memory.

Storage

Maintaining information.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information.

Elaborative (Levels of Processing)

Deeper processing improves memory.

Visual Imagery

Creating mental pictures.

Organizational

Structuring information logically.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic

Visual (lasts fractions of a second).

Echoic

Auditory (lasts a few seconds).

Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)

Temporary storage (7±2 items).

Chunking

Grouping information (e.g., phone numbers).

Rehearsal

Repeating info to retain it.

Long-Term Memory

Lasts indefinitely.

Storage & Consolidation

Strengthening memories over time.

Hippocampus

Long-term memory formation.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory is better when context matches encoding.

State-Dependent Retrieval

Recall is better in the same mental state.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of past memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Explicit Memory

Memory that involves conscious recollection.

Semantic Memory

Facts and knowledge.

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences.

Implicit Memory

Memory that does not require conscious thought.

Procedural Memory

Skills and habits.

Priming

Exposure influences behavior.

Transience

Memory fades over time.

Curve of Forgetting

Rapid loss, then levels off.

Retroactive Interference

New info disrupts old.

Proactive Interference

Old info disrupts new.

Absentmindedness

Lack of attention.

Blocking

Temporary retrieval failure.

Memory Misattribution

Assigning memory to wrong source.

Suggestibility

False memories due to misleading information.

Bias

Distorting memory based on beliefs.

Persistence

Unwanted memories (e.g., flashbulb memories).

Language

System of communication using symbols.

Semanticity & Arbitrariness

Words have meaning, but no inherent connection.

Displacement

Can discuss past and future.

Phoneme

Smallest sound unit (e.g., 'b' in 'bat').

Morpheme

Smallest meaningful unit (e.g., 'un' in 'undo').

Deep Structure

Meaning.

Surface Structure

Sentence organization.

Babbling

Early speech sounds.

Telegraphic Speech

Two-word phrases (e.g., 'want cookie').

Overgeneralization

Applying rules too broadly (e.g., 'goed' instead of 'went').

Behaviorist Theory

Learned through reinforcement.

Nativist Theory

Innate ability to learn language.

Interactionist Theory

Combination of both.

Broca's Area

Language production.

Wernicke's Area

Language comprehension.

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

Language shapes thought.

Concepts

Mental groupings.

Prototype Theory

Best example of a category.

Exemplar Theory

Comparing to specific examples.

Rational Choice Theory

Decision-making based on probability and value.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts.

Availability Bias

Judging probability by ease of recall.

Conjunction Fallacy

Assuming specific conditions are more likely.

Representative Heuristic

Judging by similarity to a stereotype.

Framing Effects

Decisions influenced by wording.

Means-Ends Analysis

Breaking down goals.

Analogical Problem Solving

Using past solutions for new problems.