Lecture Notes Flashcards

Flashcards covering key vocabulary terms and definitions from lecture notes on cells, tissues, the musculoskeletal system, the nervous system, the endocrine system, and the reproductive system.

Atom

The smallest unit of matter that retains the chemical properties of an element.

Element

A pure substance consisting only of atoms that have the same number of protons in their nuclei.

Molecule

A group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.

Compound

A substance consisting of two or more elements chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio.

Organic Molecules

Organic molecules essential for life, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Proteins

Perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, and transporting molecules.

Carbohydrates

Serve as a primary source of energy for the body and include sugars, starches, cellulose, and gums.

Lipids

Include fats, oils, and waxes, providing insulation, energy storage, and structural components of cell membranes.

Nucleic Acids

Carry the genetic information of a cell, including DNA and RNA.

Nucleus

The control center of the cell, containing DNA and responsible for regulating cell activities.

DNA

A double-stranded molecule that carries the genetic instructions for all known living organisms and many viruses.

RNA

A single-stranded molecule that plays a role in protein synthesis and gene regulation.

Transcription

The process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).

Translation

The process by which the genetic code carried by mRNA directs the synthesis of proteins from amino acids.

Cytoplasm

The material or protoplasm within a cell, excluding the nucleus.

Organelles

Cellular components responsible for specific functions within the cell.

Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A network of membranes involved in protein and lipid synthesis.

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.

Vacuoles/Vesicles

Serve as storage or transport vesicles within the cytoplasm.

Mitochondria

Produce ATP through cellular respiration.

Lysosomes

Contain enzymes for breaking down cellular waste and debris.

Cytoskeleton

A network of protein filaments that provides structural support and facilitates cell movement.

Plasma membrane

A lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that forms the boundary of a cell.

Plasma membrane proteins

Proteins embedded in the plasma membrane that perform various functions.

Ligand

A molecule that binds to a receptor.

Receptor

A protein on a cell surface or within a cell that binds to a specific molecule (ligand).

Contact-dependent signaling

Cell signaling through direct contact.

Autocrine signaling

Cell signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger that binds to receptors on the same cell.

Paracrine signaling

Cell signaling in which a cell produces a signal to induce changes in nearby cells.

Endocrine signaling

Cell signaling in which hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body.

Cell cycle

The series of events that take place in a cell, leading to its division and duplication.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death.

Necrosis

A type of cell death resulting from injury or disease.

Epithelial tissue

Covers body surfaces, lines body cavities and forms glands.

Simple epithelia

A single layer of epithelial cells.

Stratified epithelia

Multiple layers of epithelial cells.

Squamous epithelia

Flat epithelial cells.

Cuboidal epithelia

Cube-shaped epithelial cells.

Columnar epithelia

Column-shaped epithelial cells.

Exocrine glands

Glands that secrete substances onto epithelial surfaces through ducts.

Apocrine

Secretion via the pinching off of the apical portion of the cell.

Holocrine

Secretion via cell rupture.

Merocrine

Secretion via exocytosis.

Gap junctions

Channels that link adjacent cells, allowing ions and small molecules to pass through.

Tight junctions

Create a barrier that restricts the movement of water and solutes between cells.

Adherens junctions

Provide strong mechanical attachments between cells.

Desmosomes

Strong intercellular attachments that resist mechanical stress.

Hemidesmosomes

Attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane.

Adaptive cellular responses

Changes in cell structure or function in response to stress.

Connective tissue

Supports, connects, or separates different types of tissues and organs in the body

Integument

The outer protective layer of the body, including the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of skin, composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Keratinocytes

Cells of the epidermis that produce keratin.

Accessory structures of skin

Accessory structures of the skin, including hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.

Anatomical terminology

Using specific terms for describing the spatial relationships of anatomical structures.

Human skeleton

Provides support, protection, and movement.

Five types of bones

Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones.

Key components of bone & cartilage

Bone and cartilage cells, and extracellular matrix.

Types of bony constructs

Cortical vs trabecular bone

Different types of cartilage

Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage.

Different types of bone formation

Endochondral and intramembranous ossification.

Types of bone growth

Appositional and interstitial bone growth

Bone remodeling

Removes old bone and replaces it with new bone.

Four steps of bone fracture healing

Inflammation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation, and remodeling.

Types of joints

Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints.

Classifications of joints

Structural vs functional classifications

Muscles

Provides movements at a synovial joint

Three muscle types

Skeletal, Smooth and Cardiac Muscle.

Skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle structure and how it related to its function

Basic functions of the nervous system

Communication, integration, and control.

Structural organization of the nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Functional organization of the nervous system

Sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) divisions.

Parasympathetic and sympathetic responses

Rest and digest vs. fight or flight.

Basic structure of a neuron

Cell body, dendrites, axon, and axon terminals.

Types of neurons

Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

Glial cells

Glial cells of the CNS and PNS and their functions

Myelin

A fatty substance that insulates nerve fibers, increasing the speed of signal transmission.

Membrane potential

The electrical potential difference across the cell membrane.

Components of the membrane that establish the resting membrane potential

Ion channels, ion pumps, and the selective permeability of the membrane.

Sequence of events during an action potential

Depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization.

Saltatory conduction

A rapid propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons due to the presence of nodes of Ranvier.

Continuous conduction

Action potential propagation involving step-by-step depolarization and repolarization along the entire axon.

Neurosynapses communication

Neurosynaptic communication from one neuron to another.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse.

IPSP and EPSP

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential; excitatory postsynaptic potential.

Major regions of the brain

Cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum.

Grey and white matter

Neuron cell bodies and dendrites vs. myelinated axons.

Grey and white matter arrangement

Arrangement of grey and white matter in the brain and the spinal cord.

Brain lobes

Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.

Functional areas of the brain

Sensory areas, motor areas, and association areas.

Limbic system

A set of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Parts of the brainstem

Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

Major structural and functional features of the spinal cord

Central canal, dorsal horns, ventral horns, and white matter columns.

Meninges

Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

Cerebrospinal fluid

Cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord.

Blood brain barrier

Protects the brain from harmful substances in the blood.

Cerebrospinal fluid

Circulated around the brain and spinal cord.