AP Psychology Development and Learning

negative reinforcement

A process that strengthens behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus.

primary reinforcer

A stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water.

conditioned reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

continuous reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which not every correct response is reinforced.

fixed-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

variable-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

fixed-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

variable-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

punishment

An aversive consequence used to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

cognitive map

A mental representation of one's environment.

latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

intrinsic motivation

The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

extrinsic motivation

The desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

observational learning

Learning by observing others.

modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

mirror neurons

Neurons that fire when we observe others performing a behavior.

prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

antisocial behavior

Negative, destructive, harmful behavior.

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning.

John B. Watson

An American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism.

Rosalie Rayner

A psychologist who worked with John B. Watson on the Little Albert experiment.

John Garcia

A psychologist known for his research on taste aversion learning.

Robert Koelling

Collaborated with Garcia in research on taste aversion.

Robert Rescorla

A psychologist known for his work in the field of associative learning.

Edward L. Thorndike

Known for his work on the law of effect and puzzle box experiments.

B.F. Skinner

A behaviorist who developed the theory of operant conditioning.

Edward Tolman

Known for his research on cognitive maps and latent learning.

Albert Bandura

A psychologist best known for his social learning theory and the Bobo doll experiment.

associative learning

Learning that occurs when an association is formed between two stimuli.

classical conditioning

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.

learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

behaviorism

A theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.

unconditioned response (UCR or UR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response.

acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is established.

higher-order conditioning

A form of conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus.

extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

discrimination

The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.

respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.

operant behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewards or punishments.

law of effect

The principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.

operant chamber

Also known as a Skinner box, it is a controlled environment for studying operant conditioning.

shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior.

reinforcer

Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

positive reinforcement

The addition of a rewarding stimulus to increase the likelihood of the behavior.