Biology Practice Everything

Vescicles

Small membrane-bound sacs used for transporting substances within the cell. They are essential for processes such as endocytosis and exocytosis.

Mitochondria

Found in large numbers in most cells where processes of respiration and energy production occur

Prokaryotic(before the nucleus)

No membrane bound organelles e.g. nucleus

cannot form multicellular organisms.

Basically just bacteria.

Eukaryotic(true nucleus)

Membrane bound organelles, can form multicellular organisms, but not always. Basically everything that is not a bacteria.

Nucleolus

Small structure within the nucleus containing a large amount of RNA, manufactures ribosomes

Cytoplasm

Liquid based content of cells made up of 90% water and dissolved salts, organelles are suspended inside by network of microtubules and filaments called the cytoskeleton. most chemical reactions take place here

Vacuole

Fluid filled sac used to store salts, sugars, amino acids and water

Plants have one large central vacuole to support the cell and plant, plants have either multiple smaller vacuoles or none at all.

Ribosomes

small round structures made up of RNA and protein, found on rough endoplasmic reticulum and free in the cytoplasm. manufactures protein

Endoplasmic reticulum, rough

flattened series of membranes extending from nuclear membrane with ribosomes attached, transports substances through the cytoplasm including proteins made in ribosomes. folded structure increases surface area to maximise efficiency

Endoplasmic reticulum, smooth

flattened series of membranes with large surface area, transport substances through the cytoplasm and manufactures lipids. plays role in inactivating drugs(alcohol)

Golgi body

flat membranes in stacks of 4~10 with vesicles budding off for maximum surface area, processes, packages, and sorts products made by the cell into vesicles to move within, or out of cell

Golgi apparatus

a membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic cells that acts as the "packaging and shipping centre". Located near the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

-it processes, modifies (e.g., glycosylation), sorts, and packages proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations

Chloroplast

process of photosynthesis occurs in the here, utilising light energy to produce own food(glucose). Contains chlorophyll which gives green pigment colour to absorb light energy

-surrounded by double membrane and contain stacks of membrane within called grana, providing large surface area for maximum photosynthesis

Lysosome

fluid filled and small, product of golgi body. contain digestive enzymes to break down substances or worn out organelles within cell, organic catalysts. They are involved in digestion

Centriole

microtubule based organelles typically found in pairs within the centrosome. organises microtubules during cell division(mitosis/meiosis), forms basal bodies for cilia and flagella. barrel shaped

Enzyme

A type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, is the long molecule inside cells that carries the genetic instructions used for the growth, development, function, and reproduction of all living organisms

RNA

Single-stranded molecule found in all living cells. It acts as a worker that copies, carries, and turns instructions from DNA into proteins.

Structural Adaptation

A physical feature or body part of an organism that helps it survive and reproduce in its natural environment. These inherited traits—such as fur thickness, body shape, or specialized organs—evolve over many generations through natural selection

Physiological Adaptation

An automatic, internal process or chemical change inside an organism’s body that helps it survive and thrive in its environment. Unlike physical body parts or conscious actions, these are metabolic, cellular, or biochemical responses that happen without the organism trying to do them. Examples include venom and hibernation.

Mutualism

Both species benefit from the relationship. (Example: Bees and flowers

Commensalism

One species benefits, and the other is not helped or hurt. (Example: Barnacles on whales)

One species benefits at the expense of the other (the host). (Example: Ticks on deer) [1, 2, 3]

Parasitism

Endocytosis

an active transport process where a cell brings in external materials too large to pass through the membrane. The cell membrane folds inward around the substance, pinching off to form a small pocket called a vesicle that carries the material safely inside the cytoplasm

Exocytosis

an active transport process where a cell moves large molecules or waste out into the extracellular space. A tiny bubble called a vesicle holds the material, travels to the outer cell membrane, fuses with it, and opens up to release the contents outside

Photosynthesis

Vascular plant

Plants that have special tube-like tissues. These tubes move water, food, and minerals to all parts of the plant. They are also known as tracheophytes.

Non Vascular plants

simple, primitive land plants that lack specialized vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) to transport water and nutrients. Instead of true roots, stems, or leaves, they absorb water and nutrients directly through their surfaces and rely on tiny hair-like rhizoids for anchoring

Root system

Its function is to anchor the plant, absorb and transport water and inorganic minerals from the soil and store products of photosynthesis. These functions are facilitated by a very large surface area. Extensive branching increases the surface

area for effective anchorage and absorption.

Osmosis

the natural movement of water molecules through a thin barrier, called a semipermeable membrane. Water moves from a place with more water (and less dissolved stuff) to a place with less water (and more dissolved stuff) to make both sides equal.

Diffusion

the natural spreading out of particles from an area where they are crowded together (high concentration) to an area where there are fewer of them (low concentration). This movement happens all on its own due to the random motion of atoms and molecules, requiring no extra energy.

Plant Stem

Its function is structural support and providing a

transport pathway. There are three types of tissue in it: dermal tissue, vascular tissue and ground tissue. The dermal tissue forms the outer layer. The vascular tissue consists of the xylem (transports water) and phloem (transports sugars). Ground tissue is all parts of the stem that are not dermal or

vascular tissue.

Leaves

Whose main function is to absorb sunlight and produce glucose in the process of photosynthesis. Gas exchange occurs in the leaves through the stomata located on the underside of the leaf

Cuticle

water-resistant outer layer covering the leaves, green stems, and fruits. Its main jobs are stopping water loss, blocking germs, and defending against damage

Upper epidermis

a single, transparent layer of cells on the top surface of a plant leaf. It lacks chloroplasts and lets sunlight pass through to the inner cells. It also makes a waxy outer layer to stop water loss.

Lower epidermis

a single layer of cells on the bottom side of a plant leaf. It acts as a shield against damage and germs. It also features tiny pores called stomata that let gases in and out

Stomata and Guard cells

tiny pores on plant leaves that let gases move in and out, while guard cells are the specialized pair of bean-shaped cells surrounding each pore that control its opening and closing to balance photosynthesis with water conservation

Palisade Mesophyll

a layer of tall, column-shaped plant cells packed with chloroplasts. It sits right under the upper surface of a leaf. Its main job is to catch sunlight and make food through photosynthesis

Spongy mesophyll

a layer of loosely packed, irregularly shaped cells in the middle of a plant leaf. It sits below the palisade layer and above the lower skin of the leaf. Large air spaces between these cells let gases move easily through the plant

Veins (including Xylem and Phloem)

vascular bundles functioning as a transport and skeleton system. They consist primarily of xylem (which moves water and minerals upward from the roots) and phloem (which carries food/sugars made by photosynthesis to the rest of the plant) embedded within supportive tissue.

Lenticels

pores through which gaseous exchange occurs in the woody parts of plants such as the trunk and branches. . Slow diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water occur through the

lenticels.

Transpiration

The biological process where plants absorb water through their roots and release it as water vapor through tiny pores in their leaves called stomata, much like how humans sweat to cool down.

What affects rate of transpiration?

light intensity, temperature, humidity, and air movement. Higher light, higher temperature, and more wind increase water loss. Higher humidity decreases water loss. Soil water availability also plays a direct role

Translocation

the movement of sugars, amino acids, and other organic nutrients made during photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant like roots, stems, and fruits. This transport happens through specialized living tissues called phloem

Adhesion

the molecular attraction between water molecules and the polar surfaces of plant cell walls, such as the cellulose and lignin in xylem vessels. This force helps water climb upward through narrow plant tubes via capillary action and supports the continuous water column during transpiration. It also describes how cells stick together

Cohesion

explains how water moves upward through a plant's xylem against gravity. Driven by transpiration (evaporation from the leaves), water molecules form a continuous, unbroken chain because they stick to each other and the plant's cell walls.

Source to sink theory

primarily describes how plants move sugars and nutrients from sites of production (sources) to sites of use or storage (sinks) via the phloem

Carbohydrate

organic molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are one of the three main macronutrients in food. Your body breaks them down into glucose to fuel your cells, organs, and muscle.