Principles of Psychological Research Exam 2 Study Guide

Covers ethical guidelines for psychological research, identifying good measurement, and surveys & observations

Unethical experimentation during which war lead to the Nuremberg Code?

World War II

How did the Tuskegee Syphilis Study violate the Belmont principles?

Men were not treated respectfully; researchers lied about the nature of the study and withheld information

Men were harmed; subjected to painful and dangerous tests as well as not told about a treatment

Researchers targeted a disadvantaged social group; targeted poor African American men

What are the three Belmont principles?

Respect for persons, beneficence, and justice

Define the Belmont principle of Respect for Persons.

Individuals involved in research should be treated as autonomous agents and every participant is entitled to informed consent; some people have less autonomy (children, etc) so they are entitled to special protection when it comes to informed consent

Define the Belmont principle of Beneficience.

Researchers must protect participants from harm and ensure their well being

Define the Belmont principle of Justice.

Calls for a fair balance between the people who participate in the research and people who benefit from the research

What is an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

Committee responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensuring research using human participants is conducted ethically; research proposals are submitted, some may be considered exempt if there is minimal risk

What are the three Rs associated with the animal welfare?

Replacement: use another model if possible

Refinement: minimize pain and distress

Reduction: use the fewest number of animals as possible

What is data fabrication?

When researchers invent data that fits their hypothesis

What is data falsification?

When researchers influence a study’s results

What is a self-report measure?

Operationalizes a variable by recording people’s answers to questions about themselves

What is an observational measure?

Operationalizes a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors

What is a physiological measure?

Operationalizes a variable by recording biological data such as heart rate

What are categorical variables?

Variables in categories, also known as nominal variables; ex. species

What are quantitative variables?

Variables coded with meaningful numbers; ex. weight

What is an ordinal scale?

Applies when numerals of a quantitative variable represent a ranked order; ex. top 10

What is an interval scale?

Applies when the numerals of a quantitative variable represent equal distances between levels and there is no true zero; ex. IQ test

What is a ratio scale?

Applies when the numerals of a quantitative variable have equal distances between levels and when there is a true zero; ex. eyeblinks number

What type of measurement is the 1-5 Likert scale?

Interval scale

What type of measurement is gender identity?

Categorical/Nominal

What is reliability?

How consistent the results of a measure are

What is validity?

Whether the operationalization is measuring what it is supposed to measure

What is test-retest reliability?

Researcher gets consistent scores every time measure is used

What is interrater reliability?

Consistent scores are obtained no matter who measures the variable

What is internal reliability?

Consistent answers from a participant, no matter how the question is phrased

What is Cronbach’s alpha?

A correlation-based statistic to see if measurement scales have internal reliability

What is face validity?

A measure that is subjectively considered to be a plausible operationalization of a conceptual variable

What is content validity?

A measure must capture all parts of a defined construct

What is criterion validity?

Evaluates whether the measure is associated with a concrete behavioral outcome according to the conceptual definition

What is a known-groups paradigm?

A way to gather evidence for criterion validity; Researchers see whether scores of a measure can discriminate two or more groups whose behavior is already confirmed

What is convergent validity?

Pattern of correlations with measures of theoretically similar constructs

What is discriminant validity?

Pattern of correlations with measures of theoretically dissimilar constructs

Which types of validity are subjective?

Face validity and content validity

Which types of validity are objective/empirical?

Criterion validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity

What are open-ended questions?

Allows respondents to answer any way they like; provides spontaneous, rich information, but responses must be coded and categorized

What are forced-choice questions?

Respondents pick their answer of two or more options

What is a Likert scale?

A statement is presented with the options to strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree

What is semantic differential format?

Instead of degree of agreement, respondents might be asked to rate a target object using a numerical scale anchored with adjectives

What is a leading question?

Wording leads to a particular response

What is a double-barreled question?

Asks two questions in one which creates confusion; reduces construct validity

What are negatively worded questions?

A question with negative phrasing which creates confusion; reduces construct validity

What is nondifferentiation?

A type of shortcut respondents may take when answering a survey where a consistent way of answering is adopted; also known as response sets

What is acquiescence?

Also known as “yea-saying”, when participants answer “yes” or “strongly agree” to every item; can be identified by including reverse-worded items

What is fence sitting?

Answering with mostly neutral/middle of the scale choices, especially with controversial topics; can be reduced by removing the neutral option

What is socially desirable responding?

Also known as “faking good”, respondents answer in a way to make them look better; can be reduced by ensuring anonymity

What is observational research?

When a researcher watches people or animals and systematically records behavior or what they are doing; can be the basis for frequency claims

What is observer bias?

When observer’s expectations influence interpretation of participants behavior or outcome of the study

What are observer effects/expectancy effects?

When the observers inadvertently change the behavior of those they are observing, such that participant behavior changes to match observer expectations

What is masked research design?

Observers are unaware of the purpose of the study and the conditions to which participants have been assigned

What is reactivity?

Change in behavior when the study participants know another person is watching; can be reduced by blending in, waiting it out, and/or measuring the behavior’s results