Psychology: psychology of learning
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70 Terms
what is learning
an enduring change in thought, behaviour and emotion that results from an experience
essential for survival, planning for the future and acquiring the rules of society
what is classical conditioning
a process of learning whereby associations are formed between two stimuli that are normally unrelated
causes an involuntary physiological or emotional response
stimulus comes before the behaviour
Describe Ivan Pavlov’s experiment around classical conditioning
Dogs get food and start salivating, add bells when feeding to associate the sound of food with salvation. Take food away, and dogs start to salivate when they hear a bell.
done over time through repetition
creates an immediate response
measured effectiveness by measuring salivary response
what is a stimulus
Anything in the environment to which ones responds to
Example: Pavlov’s bell (auditory stimulus)
what is association in classical conditioning
The pairing of stimulus to produce a similar response (associating the bell sound with the behaviour of salivating that happens when dogs see food)
what is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
a stimulus that can produce an innate reflex ( the dogs food)
What is a neutral stimulus (NS)
doesn’t make the response happen before conditioning (bell)
what is an unconditioned response (UCR)
response produced by a UCS ( salivating
what is a conditioned stimulus (CS)
was a neutral stimulus, but after being paired with the UCS it produces a reflex like response ( bell)
what is a conditioned response
a reflex like response to a CS which has been paired with a UCS
what s the process of classical conditioning
UCS—> UCR, NS—> No response
Acquisition phase: NS + UCS —> UR
performance phase: CS-CR
what is the acquisition phase of Classical conditioning
The overall process in which an organism learns to associate two events: the CS and UCS
occurs by associating NS with UCS so that NS cause a CS
what is the performance phase of Classical conditioning
the stage where learning has occurred : the NS becomes the CS and no longer requires the UCS for the CR to occur
what is contiguity and contingency
Contiguity: the time interval between the presentation of the NS after the UCS
if too much time elapses then the association will not form
Contingency: the connect between the NS and UCS
must be a level of prediction between the stimuli in that there will be an expectation
what is stimulus generalisation
the transfer of a conditioned response to different but similar stimuli despite the absence of CS
Baby Albert being afraid of all small, white fluffy objects
what is stimulus discrimination
learning to discriminate between stimuli similar to the CS, therefore the CR does not occur unless CR is present
Pavlov’s dogs do not salivate to the sound of a phone ringing as they can distinguish the difference between sounds
what is extinction in terms of classical conditioning
A decrease in the strengthening or frequency or stopping of the CR because of failure to continue pairing
is not forgetting, as the organism still retains the understanding that the stimulus could produce a response
If forgetting occur there is no retention
what is spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of extinguished responses after the passage of time without training
after an interval, the CS and the UCS are reintroduced, and the CS will elicit the CR
how can preparedness affect conditioning
Some associations are learned more readily than others, as conditioning can occur in a single instance
taste or food aversions
being bitten by a spider and then fearing spiders
How can classical conditioning lead to the creation of phobias
Soligman suggest that we are biologically predisposed to form associations between stimuli that threaten survival or expose us to harm
explain phobias and why they are easily conditioned
what is systematic desensitisation
A therapeutic tool used to modify learned behaviour associated with phobias
intends to reduce anxiety responses through counter conditioning
Based on conditioning relaxation with feared object
what are the steps to systematic desensitisation
learns relation techniques
create a list of fears surrounding the phobia from smallest to largest
pair the relaxation technique with smallest fear and start getting bigger over time
what is operant conditioning
a learning process in which the consequences following the behaviour modify the strength of the behaviour
negative consequences = punishment
Positive consequences = reward
What did BF skinner discover about operant conditioning
Behaviour followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated
opposite for negative consequences
behaviour that is reinforced tends to be repeated
behaviour that is punished tends to die out
what is reinforcement and what are the types
Reinforcement is any process that increases the frequency of a targeted behaviour.
positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
what is positive reinforcement
occurs when a desired behaviour is increased by the provision of a pleasant consequence (adds pleasant stimulus)
What is negative reinforcement strengthen behaviour
occurs when desired behaviour is increased by the removal of an unpleasant consequence (removes unpleasant stimuli)
An example of positive reinforcement strengthening behaviour
Studying for a test (behaviour)
Getting good grades (reinforcer)
Behaviour is strengthened and the person is likely to study for the test again
an example of negative reinforcement strengthening behaviour
strengthens a behaviour by removing or reducing, or preventing an unpleasant stimulus
taking medication for pain(behaviour)
Headache disappears (stimulus removed)
Behaviour is strengthened and will take medication again
what is punishment and what are the types
Any process that decreases the frequency of a targeted behaviour
Aversion punishment
Response cost
What is aversion punishment
occurs when an aversion or unpleasant stimulus is applied after undesirable behaviour occurs
makes behaviour less likely to occur in future
what is Response cost (punishment)
occurs when a desirable or pleasant stimulus is removed after undesirable behaviour occurs
makes behaviour less likely to occur in future
an example of Aversion punishment weakening behaviour
The child picks up spider (behaviour)
spider bites child causing pain (aversive stimulus)
behaviour weakened
an example of response cost weakening behaviour
toddler steals toy (behaviour)
parents removes toy (pleasant stimulus removed)
behavior less likely to occur
what was BK skinners experiment
starved rats and then provided them with a lever that would give them food. The first time hitting the lever would be an accident, but eventually the rat would learn that the lever food and continue to press it when it was hungry
receiving food= reinforcer
Hitting the lever is the operant
did the same experiment, but every time the lever was pressed, they received a shock which stopped them from pressing the button
What is the importance of contiguity in operant conditioning
Consequences must be placed close to a behaviour so that proper association can be formed.
however they don’t need to be as close as classical conditioning
What is contingency in operant conditioning, and why is it important
referred to as the relationship between the response and the reinforcer / a response and a punisher
To be effective, the consequence must of consistent and appropriate for the person receiving it and the situation
what is shaping
a technique used to learn increasingly complex behaviour through learning a close approximation to the main goal and then receiving a reward. The task will then become increasingly complicated.
Example: teaching a child to ride a 4-wheel bike ( reward), then a tricycle (reward), then with training wheels (reward), the without training wheels(reward)
what is the placebo effect
a phenomenon that occurs when a person believes they are receiving real treatment and reports improvement in their condition
How does the placebo effect link with operant conditioning
When referring to the use of placebo pain medication, the taking of pain is negative reinforcement. The pain is taken away because you would have a preconceived notion that the medication would work, so when you take it and it does, it supports the behaviour, making it more likely to occur
what is observational learning and how is it differnt from operant conditioning
a learning process that happens indirectly through a process of watching others and imitating their behaviour
it differs from operant conditioning as it does not require the application of consequence in order for the behaviour to be reproduced
what did Bandura’s study accomplish
Bandura studied the levels of aggression in children who were exposed to an aggressive model and a non-aggressive model to see if they replicated the behaviour.
done on children aged 37-39 months
aggression was rank on a scale of 1-4 before testing
also tested the effectiveness of male vs female models
what are the factors that influence observational learning
ARRM
Attention
retention
reproduction
motivation
what is attention in ARRM
The individual notices the observable behaviour in their surrounding environment
What is retention in ARRM
The individual remembers what was noticed by encoding and storing information in long0-term memory
What is reproduction in ARRM
the individual must be able to replicate the behaviour
what is Motivation in ARRM
The consequence of the behaviour that is being observed can affect the probability of it being replicated
what are behavioral counts and what are the benefits of using them
tallying the number of times a participant participates in a certain behaviour
can be easily replicated
displays the frequency of behaviour
object and simplistic (easy to analyse)
what are some characteristics of the model that influence observational learning
sex of model matching participant
being within a similar age range to the participant
model being a person of admiration to participant
model being perceived as arm and nurturing
model having authority
What are some outside factors that can affect that can models in observational learning
when observer lack confidence in their own knowledge and abilities
when the situation/environment/behaviour is confusing, ambiguous or unfamiliar
when the observer isa high self-monitor
What are Mirror Neurons
Research suggests that observational learning and imitative behaviour are due to the existence of mirror neurons
discovered by Giacomo Rizzolatti
recorded neuron activity in the front and parietal areas of the brain during the execution and observation of behaviour
what are learner chracteristics
a person’s traits that influence the speed at which learning occurs, and the guidance and support required in the learning process
what are personal characteristics
demographic information such as age, gender, personality, maturity, socioeconomic status, cultural background and specific needs such as particular skills, disabilities or learning impairments
What are academic characteristics
more education and learning centred, such as learning styles (visual learners, practical learners), learning goals, prior knowledge, education type and education level.
What are social/ emotional characteristics
can relate to a group or individual and includes group structure, place of the individual in a group, self-image and mood
what are cognitive characteristics
refers to things such as attention span, memory, mental procedures, and intellectual skills that determine how a learner perceives, thinks, remembers, and solves problems, and organises information in their brain
what is cognitive behavioural therapy and how does it work
a common psychological treatment of disorders like anxiety and depression, and is based on learning theories
views problematic behaviour as learned, meaning it can be unlearned or replaced by new behaviours
aims to help clients identify problem behaviours and modify thinking patterns, and learn skills
Why is it important to cater Cognitive behavioural therapy to each person
each person’s CBT strategies need to be tailored to them due to differentiating factors such as:
age
willingness
personality
gender
what is the first step of CBT
Identify troubling issues
fear, worry, symptoms, self-image and more
decide what area to focus on
what is the second step to CBT
Grasp thoughts, feelings and beliefs
notice what you think, feel and believe about your issue
observe your self talk and the meaning it has to you
What is the third step to CBT
Identify negative thinking
examine physical, emotional and behavioural responses
determine any cycles of patterns that are unhelpful
what is the fourth step to CBT
Reshape negative thinking
change your thoughts to be more factual and positive which may take time
notice how changing thoughts changes emotions
what are the schedules of reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
fixed interval
variable interval
fixed ratio
Variable ration
what is continuous reinforcement based on: learning, performance and extinction
reward behaviour continuously, each time correct behaviour is performed
Learning: fast, best when learning something new, animals and people respond well
Performance: may become dependent on the reward, higher rates of response
Extinction: fast, more likely to stop once the reward is gone
what is fixed interval based on: learning, performance and extinction
reward behaviour after a certain amount of time
Learning: once an interval is learned, performance is dropped until the next interval
Performance: moderate, no incentive to perform between intervals
Extinctions: Resistance increases as the interval gets longer, likely to become extinct fast without evidence
what is variable interval based on: learning, performance and extinction
reinforcement delivered at an unpredictable time
Learning: useful for teachers to keep students studying regularly, may not know when the next test is
Performance: Moderate yet steady response rate, don’t know when the reward will come but keeps checking
Extinction: More resistance to extinction then fixed as intervals are similar
what is fixed ratio based on: learning, performance and extinction
Rewarding behaviour after it has been performed a certain number of times
Learning: useful when learning a new skill, but don’t want to reward every behaviour
Performance: high response rate with pauses after reinforcement
Extinction: goes away quickly when the reward is gone
what is variable ratio based on: learning, performance and extinction
reward behaviour after it has been performed a certain number of times, which increases after each reward.
Learning: useful once behaviour has been learned, the best way to maintain behaviour
Performance: high and steady response rate
Extinction: very addictive and resistant to extinction
what is behavioiur modifiction
set therapies/techniques based on operant conditioning
process of modifying behaviours over the long term using motivation techniques and reinforcement strategies
What are the steps surrounding behaviour modification
Monitor the amount of time spent doing the activity and how problematic the behaviour is
Negotiate a realistic goal with the client
Discuss the reinforcement schedule and how the person is rewarded
Start with small improvements
Gradually remove reward until the behaviour has been altered