Comprehensive Lecture Review: Biochemistry, Genetics, Metabolism, and Physics

Vocabulary flashcards based on lecture notes covering amino acid properties, enzyme kinetics, metabolic pathways (Glycolysis/Krebs), molecular genetics, immunology, fluid mechanics, electricity, thermodynamics, lab techniques, and psychology.

Cysteine

A polar uncharged amino acid characterized by its ability to form disulfide bonds.

Histidine

A positive (basic) amino acid that serves as an important buffer.

Glycine

The smallest amino acid, which is unique for being achiral.

Proline

An amino acid known for causing kinks in protein structures.

pI (Isoelectric Point)

The $pH$ at which an amino acid has a net charge of $0$.

Enzymes

Biological catalysts that lower activation energy and speed up both forward and reverse reactions without changing $\text{DG}$ (\text{\Delta G}) or equilibrium.

Competitive Inhibition

A type of inhibition where the inhibitor binds to the active site, causing $K_m \uparrow$ while $V_{max}$ stays the same.

Noncompetitive Inhibition

Inhibitor binds somewhere other than the active site; $K_m$ remains the same while $V_{max} \downarrow$.

Uncompetitive Inhibition

Inhibitor binds only to the enzyme-substrate complex, resulting in both $K_m \downarrow$ and $V_{max} \downarrow$.

Semiconservative Replication

The mechanism of DNA replication where each daughter DNA molecule contains one old strand and one new strand.

Helicase

The enzyme responsible for unzipping DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds.

DNA polymerase

Enzyme that reads the template strand $3'-5'$ and builds the new strand $5'-3'$; it only adds nucleotides to the $3'$ end.

DNA ligase

The enzyme that glues Okazaki fragments together on the lagging strand.

Topoisomerase

Enzyme that relieves twisting tension ahead of the replication fork.

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)

The rate-limiting enzyme of glycolysis.

Glycolysis

A process occurring in the cytoplasm that converts one Glucose ($6C$) into two Pyruvate ($3C$), producing a net of $2$ ATP and $2$ NADH.

Krebs cycle

A cycle in the mitochondrial matrix that extracts energy from Acetyl-CoA ($2C$); per turn it produces $3$ NADH, $1$ $FADH_2$, $1$ GTP, and releases $2$ $CO_2$.

Innate immunity

Non-specific immune defenses including tears (lysozyme), neutrophils (first responders), macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells.

Adaptive Immunity

Highly specific immune response involving B cells (antibodies, plasma cells, memory B cells) and T cells (helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells).

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

A state where allele frequencies stay constant in a non-evolving population, defined by $p+q=1$ and $p^2+2pq+q^2=1$.

Autosomal recessive

An inheritance pattern where an individual needs two recessive alleles to show the trait, often skipping generations.

Start codon

AUG, which starts translation and codes for Methionine ($M$).

Stop codons

UAA, UAG, and UGA; codons that signal the ribosome to stop protein synthesis.

Primary protein structure

The linear sequence of amino acids held together by peptide (amide) bonds formed via dehydration reactions.

Secondary protein structure

Local folding into $\alpha$-helices and $\beta$-pleated sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the backbone carbonyl oxygen and amide hydrogen.

Tertiary structure

The entire three-dimensional shape of a protein determined by side chain interactions including hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds (salt bridges), and disulfide bonds.

Missense mutation

A point mutation where a DNA change results in a different amino acid, such as Glutamic acid being replaced by Valine in sickle cell disease.

Nonsense mutation

A DNA change that creates a stop codon, leading to a truncated and usually nonfunctional protein.

Introns

Non-coding segments of pre-mRNA that are removed during splicing.

Hydrostatic pressure

The pressure in a fluid that increases with depth, calculated as $P = P_0 + \rho gh$.

Archimedes' Principle

States that the buoyant force ($F_b$) is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced: $F_b = \rho_{fluid} V_{displaced} g$.

Continuity Equation

$A_1 V_1 = A_2 V_2$; what goes in must come out, implying fluid velocity increases as tube area decreases.

Ohm's Law

The relationship between Voltage ($V$), Current ($I$), and Resistance ($R$): $V = I \times R$.

SDS-PAGE

A technique that unfolds proteins and separates them by size (molecular weight); small proteins travel farther.

Western blot

A method used to separate and identify specific proteins using antibodies.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

A method to amplify DNA using cycles of Denaturation (heat), Annealing (cool/primers), and Extension (Taq polymerase).

Galvanic cell

A device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy through spontaneous reactions ($-\Delta G$), where the anode is negative and the cathode is positive.

Photon energy

Calculated by the equation $E = hf$, where energy is proportional to frequency ($f$).

Doppler effect

The change in observed frequency of a wave due to the relative motion between the source and the observer.

Capacitor

A component that stores electrical charge, with capacitance defined as $C = \frac{Q}{V}$.

Frontal lobe

The part of the forebrain responsible for planning and decision making.

Hippocampus

A structure in the limbic system essential for memory formation.

Piaget's Cognitive Development Stages

Includes Sensorimotor ($0-2$), Preoperational ($2-7$), Concrete Operational ($7-11$), and Post operational ($11+$).

Rashier & Singer

A theory of emotion involving physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

Glomerulus

The site of blood filtration in the kidney where red blood cells and most proteins are retained in the blood.

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)

Hormone that acts on the collecting duct to increase water reabsorption, producing more concentrated urine.

Aldosterone

Hormone that acts on the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct to increase sodium reabsorption, leading to increased blood volume and pressure.