Chapter 12 notes

Problem

An obstacle between a current state and a goal, where the solution is not immediately clear.

Gestalt Approach to Problem Solving

Emphasizes problem-solving as perceiving the problem's structure correctly and restructuring mental representations.

Restructuring

The process of reorganizing mental representations to find a solution without the need for mathematical equations.

Insight

A sudden comprehension or realization leading to a solution, involving a reorganization of mental representations.

Fixation

A major obstacle in problem-solving where focus on specific characteristics hinders finding a solution.

Functional Fixedness

A type of fixation where familiar functions of objects impede problem-solving by limiting alternative uses.

Mental Set

A preconceived notion about problem-solving approaches based on past experiences.

Means-End Analysis

A strategy to reduce the difference between initial and goal states by setting subgoals.

Analogical Transfer

Using the solution to a similar problem to guide the solution of a new problem.

Expertise in Problem Solving

Experts invest time in deliberate practice, possess domain-specific knowledge, and organize information based on underlying principles.

Analytical Approach

Experts invest time in problem analysis before solving them, leading to more effective solutions.

Domain-Specific Expertise

Expertise is specialized and may not transfer to unrelated fields, hindering out-of-the-box thinking.

Cognitive Processes in Expert Problem Solving

Experts excel in pattern recognition, memory retrieval, and mental simulations for problem-solving.

Training for Expertise

Analogical encoding enhances problem-solving skills by noticing similarities between problems.

Creative Problem Solving

Creativity involves originality, utility, and practicality in solutions, as exemplified by Niels Bohr's unconventional problem-solving approaches.

Defining Creativity

Divergent thinking generates unique solutions, emphasizing the usefulness of creative solutions.

Brain Networks and Creativity

Default Mode Network (DMN), Executive Control Network, and Salience Network play roles in creativity and idea generation.

Role of the Default Mode Network (DMN) in Creativity

The DMN contributes to creative thinking through mind wandering and incubation effects.

Understanding the ECN and DMN in Creative Thinking

The ECN directs attention, while the DMN is active during mind wandering, collaborating for creativity.

Collaboration Between Networks

The ECN and DMN collaborate during creative tasks, managing imagination and exploring complex ideas.

Mindfulness and Its Impact on Creativity

Mindfulness techniques like OM meditation enhance creativity by activating the DMN and fostering a free flow of thoughts.

Analogical Problem Solving

Using solutions from similar problems to solve new ones.

Duncker’s Radiation Problem

Destroying a tumor with rays without harming surrounding tissue.

Steps in Analogical Problem Solving

Noticing, mapping, and applying analogous relationships to generate solutions.

Analogical Encoding

Identifying similarities between problems to aid in problem-solving.

Analogical Paradox

Discrepancy between real-world analogy use and lab research application difficulty.

Expertise

High skill or knowledge level in a specific field, gained through experience.

Divergent Thinking and Connectivity

Generating unique solutions and forming connections between ideas.

Factors in Generating Ideas

Role of knowledge, brainstorming, and creative cognition in idea generation.

problems are either —>

well defined or ill defined

well defined problems

initial state, goal state, and permissible operations completely specified —> we know almost everything about the question

ill defined problems

uncertainty in one or more components we don’t know everything about the question, more difficult to study.

problems of inducing structure

determines relationship among several given elements (analogy problems) four steps required to solve.

problems of inducing structure

1) encoding: identify appropriate attributes

2) inference: relate 1st and 2nd elements

3) mapping: relate 1st and 3d elements

4) application: relate 3rd and 4th elements

these four steps allow us to see where people make error if they do

coherence

representation compromised of parts connected in a way that makes sense

correspondence

internal representation “maps well” onto elements of the problem

relationship to background knowledge

problem elements linked to existing knowledge

3 requirements for understanding a problem

coherence, correspondence, relationship to background knowledge,

algorithm

set of operations that systematically and exhaustively generates a solution

heuristic

strategy that often helps generate a solution, does not guarantee success (more difficult than algorithms)

problem space

collection of nodes each representing a state of knowledge or possible action, problem solving seen as search through problem space

problem space states

initial, intermediate, goal

operators

links between nodes, consist of functions selected to solve problems. path constraints can rule out some possibilities.

mindlessness

thoughtless application of old ways of thinking to new situations without completely considering whether they are suitable

entrapment by categories

thinking of objects only in terms of the categories they fit into

incubation

problem solving facilitated by time away from it (effects not consistently found) but effect can be due to release from mental set/functional fixedness. retrieval of new information by changing context, recovery from fatigue, conscious problem solving, unconscious processing

reproductive thinking

based on existing associations involving what is already known (non creative thinking)

productive thinking

insights that go beyond the bounds of existing associations (creative thinking)

three process view

selective encoding insights (whats relevant and irreverent info), selective comparison insights (involve novel perception of how new info relates to old), selective combinations insights (combinding selectively encoded and compared info in a novel way.)

verbal overshadowing effect

verbal system processing interferes with insight problem solving ability

tactical learning

specific rules learned for specific problems

strategic learning

problem solving organized in an optimal way for problems in that domain (very broad)

what kind of problem is long division

problem of transformation