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Cultural capital
Symbolic and interactional resources used to gain advantages; includes embodied knowledge (e.g. speech, taste) and objectified goods (e.g. books, degrees).
Cultural field
Bounded sites of cultural practice structured by institutions, norms, and power relations.
Culture
The sum of social categories, beliefs, behaviors, and practices; includes material and non-material aspects.
Distinction
Bourdieu’s idea that tastes reflect and reinforce class divisions and social hierarchies.
Embodiment
The process where social structures shape our physical behaviors and internal dispositions.
Habitus
System of embodied dispositions that guide perception and behavior; shaped by class and socialization.
Pierre Bourdieu
French sociologist who developed theories of cultural capital, habitus, and social reproduction.
Social class reproduction
The process by which social class is transmitted from generation to generation through culture, schools, and family.
Crime
Behavior that violates formal legal codes.
Dimensions of power
Forms of power: direct domination, agenda-setting, and shaping desires or ideology.
Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison
Foucault’s work on how modern societies control people through surveillance and discipline rather than force.
Formal social sanctions
Official punishments or rewards by institutions (e.g., fines, jail, awards).
Informal deviance
Minor norm violations (e.g., dressing unusually) that don't break laws.
Informal social sanctions
Unwritten societal reactions to deviance, like gossip, shame, or praise.
Michel Foucault
French theorist known for ideas about power, surveillance, and the panopticon.
Norms
Social expectations that guide individual behavior.
Panopticon
A prison design that allows surveillance without the watched knowing; metaphor for modern control.
Panopticonism
Foucault’s concept that modern societies induce self-discipline through perceived surveillance.
Power
The ability to influence or control others, even against their will.
Social control
Methods societies use to regulate individual behavior, both formally and informally.
Social deviance
Behavior that violates social norms.
Stigma
An attribute that discredits a person or group in society.
Strain theory
Merton’s theory that deviance arises when society does not give all of its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals
Total institution
A place where all aspects of life are controlled (e.g., prison, military, asylums).
Black Lives Matter (BLM)
A movement protesting racial injustice and police violence, especially against Black Americans.
Color-blind racism
Ideology that ignores race in theory but reinforces inequality in practice by denying systemic issues.
Critical race theory
Framework arguing that racism is embedded in legal systems and social institutions.
Discrimination
Unequal treatment of individuals based on their race or ethnicity.
Ethnicity
Social identity based on cultural traits like language, religion, or nationality; often self-defined.
Genocide
Mass killing of a group based on race, ethnicity, or religion.
Institutional racism
Systemic disadvantage of minority groups through seemingly neutral institutions (e.g., education, housing).
Nativism
The belief in protecting native-born interests over those of immigrants.
Pluralism
Coexistence of diverse groups within society while maintaining their cultural differences.
Prejudice
Preconceived negative beliefs or attitudes about a racial or ethnic group.
Primordialism
The view that ethnic ties are deeply rooted in culture and homeland traditions.
Race
A social construct that categorizes people based on perceived physical differences; shaped by power and history.
Racism
Belief in the superiority of one race over another, often used to justify inequality.
Scientific racism
Pseudoscientific theories that claimed biological differences justified racial hierarchies.
Segregation
Separation of people based on race, either legally (de jure) or socially (de facto).
Social construct
An idea created and maintained by society that influences behavior and outcomes.
Straight-line assimilation
Park’s theory of immigrant integration through stages: arrival → adaptation → assimilation.
The New Jim Crow
Michelle Alexander’s term for mass incarceration as a new form of racial control after Jim Crow.
White privilege
Unearned advantages granted to white people in social, economic, and legal systems.
MeToo Movement
Social movement raising awareness of sexual harassment and assault, especially in workplaces.
Androgynous
Exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics.
Cisgender
A person whose gender identity matches their sex assigned at birth.
Emotional labor
Managing feelings to fulfill emotional requirements of a job (e.g., customer service).
Essentialism
Belief that gender and sex roles are rooted in biology and fixed.
Gender
Socially constructed roles and expectations for masculinity and femininity.
Gender role socialization
Process through which people learn gender norms from family, media, and society.
Hegemonic masculinity
The dominant, idealized form of masculinity characterized by strength, authority, and heterosexuality.
Heteronormativity
Assumption that heterosexuality is the default or norm.
History of Sexuality
Foucault’s work exploring how sexuality is regulated by power and history.
Homosexuality
Sexual or romantic attraction to people of the same gender.
Intersectionality
A framework for understanding how overlapping identities (race, class, gender) affect privilege and oppression.
Patriarchy
A social system in which men hold primary power in roles of leadership and authority.
Queer theory
Challenges fixed identities and binary thinking around gender and sexuality.
Sex
Biological differences between males and females.
Sexism
Prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender.
Sexual harassment
Unwanted sexual advances or conduct, especially in professional settings.
Sexuality
Individual’s sexual identity, orientation, desires, and behaviors.
Strands of feminism
Different approaches to feminism: liberal (rights), radical (patriarchy critique), intersectional (multiple oppressions).
Toxic masculinity
Cultural norms that pressure men to suppress emotion, dominate others, and reject femininity.
Transgender
A person whose gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth.
Absolute poverty
Inability to meet basic needs for survival like food, shelter, or medical care.
Alienation
Marx’s idea that workers are disconnected from the product, the process, and their own humanity under capitalism.
Capitalism
Economic system based on private ownership, market competition, and profit.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
2010 case allowing unlimited corporate and union spending on elections, framing it as free speech.
Communism
Economic system where all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to needs and abilities.
Contradictory class locations
Positions in the class structure that contain traits of both the working and capitalist classes (e.g., managers).
Corporation
Legal entity with rights and responsibilities separate from its owners; dominant in modern economies.
Internal contradictions of capitalism
Inefficiencies and crises within capitalism (e.g., overproduction, inequality) that threaten its stability.
Monopoly
Market dominated by a single seller, limiting consumer choice.
Oligopoly
Market controlled by a few large firms that dominate the sector.
Relative poverty
Being poor in comparison to the average standard of living in a society.
Socialism
System where the means of production are owned or regulated by the community or state.
Theory of the ‘invisible hand’
Adam Smith’s idea that individual self-interest in markets leads to positive outcomes for society.
“Tragedy of the Commons”
Idea that individuals overusing shared resources leads to collective ruin.
Union
Organization of workers formed to protect their rights and interests through collective bargaining.
Union busting
Tactics used by employers to prevent or undermine labor union formation.