WEEK 10: MARCH 21. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: PLURALITY AND TENSIONS IN A MOVEMENT

Historical Evolution of the Sociology of Social Movements

Origins — Psychological Interpretations of Collective Action

• Early explanations of mobilization came from social psychology, notably Gustave Le Bon (1895). • Emphasized irrationality of crowds, loss of individuality, and emotional behavior. • Later thinkers introduced the "mass" concept (e.g., Arendt, 1951) to describe organized, large-scale movements.

Rational Choice Turn (1960s) • Marked break from irrationalist models. • Emphasized rational, utility-maximizing individuals (inspired by neoclassical economics). • Triggered by scholars’ own political engagement (e.g., Civil Rights, Vietnam War). • Mancur Olson: Protesters act based on cost-benefit calculations

Historical Evolution of the Sociology of Social Movements Part 2

Rational Choice Extensions • Relative Deprivation Theory (Ted Gurr, 1970): Mobilization stems from shared feelings of frustration over resource loss. • Resource Mobilization Theory (McCarthy & Zald, 1977): Groups mobilize when they possess sufficient resources to act. • Focus on actors' strategic behavior.

Critiques & Structuralist Reintroduction of the State • Critics challenge the model’s reduction to homo economicus. • Structuralist and neo-Marxist models recenter the role of the state. • Political Process Theory (PPT) emerges: state structures shape opportunities for collective action.

Historical Evolution of the Sociology of Social Movements Part 3

Charles Tilly & Political Process Theory • Charles Tilly: Protest as a historical process shaped by state formation. • Key concepts: ✓ Political Opportunity Structure (POS): Regime characteristics that help/hinder mobilization. ✓ Contentious Repertoires: Historically stable, known forms of protest.

POS – Key Properties (Tilly & Tarrow, 2006) • Multiplicity of power centers • Openness to new actors • Instability of alignments • Availability of elite allies • Repression/facilitation of claims • Changes in any of the above POS helps explain why and when people mobilize.

Cultural/Social movements

Cultural Turn – New Social Movements (NSM) • 1970s–1980s: Reaction to economic determinism. • NSM focus on identity, culture, and post-industrial society. • Key thinkers: Melucci, Pizzorno, Touraine, Habermas, Offe. • Marked shift away from class-based movements.

Framing Theory

Framing Theory • Gamson (1982), Snow et al. (1986): Mobilization emerges through discursive frames that give meaning to action. • Frames shape how movements interpret their struggles and attract participants.

Defining Social Movements (Tilly & Tarrow, 2006)

Defining Social Movements (Tilly & Tarrow, 2006)

Sustained claim-making campaigns • Public performances (e.g., rallies, marches, lobbying) • Displays of worthiness, unity, numbers, commitment • Use of organizations, networks, and solidarities Definition’s strength: precision in form, temporality, content, objectives, and composition.

Contemporary Critiques

• Feminist critiques: Overemphasis on conflict and public representation. • Post-PPT critiques: Too state-centric, excludes non-state mobilizations. • Goodwin & Hetland (2012): Call for return to capitalism as central analytic category in explaining injustice.

Berstein - Research, Key Concept and Tension

Malaena J. Taylor and Mary Bernstein. 2019. «Denial, Deflection, and Distraction: Neutralizing Charges of Racism by the Tea Party Movement», Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 24(20): 137-156.

Research Question: How do Tea Party activists maintain a sense of moral goodness and positive collective identity when accused of racism?

Key Concept: Stigma Neutralization Model

Tension: The movement operates in a society where racism is publicly condemned. To influence the mainstream, they must appear to respect dominant moral norms, creating a need to reconcile internal beliefs with public perception.

• What Is Collective Identity in Social Movements?

What Is Collective Identity in Social Movements? A shared set of goals, beliefs, values, interests, attitudes, and symbols that unify activists as a group.

Functions of Collective Identity: • Fosters a strong “we” feeling that motivates action. • Defines group boundaries: who belongs and who doesn't. • Drives mobilization, recruitment, and sustained engagement. • Shapes how the movement is perceived by the public.

Identity Work

Ongoing efforts by activists to maintain, adjust, or defend their collective identity.

Why It Matters: • Helps the group stay unified despite internal differences. • Crucial for navigating public image, especially under criticism. • Involves defining who "we" are—and who "we are not". • Responds to stigma, conflict, or shifting political environments.

Identity Contests & External Challenges

Identity Contest: Occurs when external actors challenge a movement’s identity, e.g., by calling it racist.

Movement Response: • Engage in intensive identity work to reassert moral legitimacy. • Use discursive strategies to reject negative labels (e.g., “We’re not racist, we’re just patriotic”). • Essential for maintaining public credibility and political effectiveness.

Why It’s Crucial: • Public perception impacts mobilization power. • Identity contests can define a movement’s trajectory.

Modern/Symbolic Racism and Colorblind Racism

Modern/Symbolic Racism Characterized by subtle yet persistent racial beliefs: • Denial of Continuing Discrimination: Racism is no longer a major issue. • Blaming Black People: Lack of progress is due to laziness or lack of effort. • Excessive Demands: Black people are perceived as asking for too much, too fast. • Undeserved Advantage: Programs like affirmative action are seen as unfair benefits.

Colorblind Racism (Bonilla-Silva) A “nonracial” form that maintains racial inequality: • Abstract Liberalism: Everyone has equal opportunities, so race-based policies aren’t needed. • Minimization of Racism: Racism is exaggerated or no longer exists. • Cultural Racism: Inequality blamed on cultural traits, not systemic injustice. • Naturalization: Segregation or inequality seen as “just the way things are.”

What is Neutralization?

What is Neutralization?

A process by which individuals/groups defend or justify stigmatized behaviors (e.g., racism) to maintain a positive self-image and moral identity.

Five Techniques (adapted from Sykes & Matza):

• Denial of Responsibility → “It’s not our fault”; external forces are to blame. • Denial of Injury → “No one was really hurt”; actions had no real consequences. • Denial of the Victim → “They’re not real victims”; blame is placed on those harmed. • Condemnation of the Condemners → “Critics are biased”; attackers are discredited. • Appeal to Higher Loyalties → “We did it for a greater cause”; loyalty justifies behavior.

Methodological Approach: Ethnography

Used to gain in-depth, real-time insights into how TPM members interact and manage accusations of racism.

1. Participant Observation Conducted in a small Northeastern U.S. city (Feb 2010–June 2011). Attended 22 TPM meetings and 3 public rallies (e.g., Tax Day, “Drain the Swamp”).

2. Fieldnotes & Data Collection Fieldnotes captured direct interactions, language, and discourse. Focused on race, identity, and responses to stigma

Application of the general model on the Tea Party

Denial – No Victim, Injury, or Responsibility

General Denial Strategy TPM activists claim that racial disparities are due to individual behavior, not racism. This reflects colorblind racism, where race is dismissed as a factor.

1. Flat Denial of Racism

2. Complex Denial Using Racist Ideologies

Deflection – Condemn the Condemners

Deflection – Condemn the Condemners

Strategy: Shift attention from accusations of racism onto the accusers, painting them as biased or manipulative.

Common Tactics: • Accuse critics of hypocrisy • Claim the “race card” is being misused • Portray TPM as victims of unfair attacks

Distraction – The Exception Proves the Rule

Distraction – The Exception Proves the Rule

Strategy: Use token minority figures to counter accusations of racism by showcasing exceptions.

What This Does: • Suggests that racism can’t exist if some Black individuals are successful. • Implies personal responsibility trumps systemic inequality

Explanations of Women's Involvement in Racist Movements - Blee

Psychological/Social-Psychological Theories • Theories like the “authoritarian personality” (Adorno et al., 1950) and Hofstadter’s “paranoid style” (1965) • Critique: These theories focus too narrowly on individual pathology

Sexist Analysis • Suggests women join due to manipulation by men or misidentification of their interests. • Critique: This view portrays women as passive, denying their agency.

Status Politics Theories • Participation stems from a perceived threat to social status or identity (relative frustration). • Critique: These theories struggle to explain the internal diversity

Methodology – Life History Interviews - Blee

34 in-depth life history interviews with women in white supremacist movements • 14 neo-Nazis (excluding skinheads) • 6 Ku Klux Klan members • 8 white power skinheads • 6 from Christian Identity or similar groups

Three strategies - Blee

1. Conversion: A Narrative of Transformation Constructed Stories Bodily Experience & Trauma Binary Form Racial Mythologies

2. Selective Adoption: Navigating Ideological Tensions Partial Belief Personal Ties Conflict with Experience Movement Tolerance

3. Resignation: Emotional Distance and Reluctant Engagement Passive Identity Emotional Tone Hesitant Recruitment Self-Denial

Implication of this analysis - Blee

1. Racist Activism Is Not Ideologically Coherent or Totalizing

2. Racist Activism Is Structured by Gender

3. The Need to Study the Process of Political Identity Formation

POINTS - Week 10: Social Movements: Plurality and Tensions in a Movement)

• Summary: This slideshow provides an overview of the historical evolution of the sociology of social movements, starting with psychological interpretations and moving towards more contemporary perspectives. It also introduces the readings for the week, including the article on the Tea Party Movement's neutralization of racism.

• Main Ideas:

  • Early social movement theories focused on the irrationality of crowds.

  • Later theories shifted towards resource mobilization, political opportunity structures, and framing processes.

  • Feminist and post-structuralist critiques highlighted the limitations of earlier theories, including their focus on conflict and state-centric approaches.

  • There's a call to return to capitalism as a central analytic category in explaining injustice.

• Political Sociology Points:

  • Examines how social movements emerge and mobilize.

  • Analyzes different theoretical perspectives on collective action.

  • Highlights the role of identity, framing, and political context in social movements.

  • Critiques the focus on the state and calls for broader understandings of mobilization.

Excerpts from "10. Denial, deflection, and distraction. Neutralizing charges of racism by the Tea Party movement

• Summary: This article examines how the Tea Party Movement (TPM) in the Northeastern United States attempts to neutralize charges of racism. It focuses on "backstage discourse" within the movement to understand how activists maintain a racially tolerant identity while engaging in discourse that can reproduce racist ideology. The authors develop a "stigma neutralization model" based on Sykes and Matza's techniques of neutralization.

• Main Ideas:

  • Movements claiming to speak for the majority need to distance themselves from charges of racism to gain credibility and recruit members.

  • Understanding how groups respond internally to accusations of racism is crucial for understanding the reproduction of racist ideology.

  • The study analyzes "backstage discourse" in TPM meetings to understand their strategies for fending off stigma.

  • TPM activists employ "techniques of neutralization" to counter frames that delegitimize or stigmatize them as racist.

  • The article proposes a "stigma neutralization model" to understand how activists reconstitute individual and movement identities as nonracist.

  • The model can be applied to other movements facing stigma, such as opponents of LGBT rights and anti-Islamic activists.

• Political Sociology Points:

  • Analyzes identity work within a social movement and how activists negotiate charges of social stigma.

  • Applies social movement theory and racism theories to understand identity construction.

  • Examines the importance of both public presentation and internal discourse in shaping movement identity.

  • Illustrates how dominant racial ideologies are appropriated and reconstituted by activists.

  • Connects individual and collective identity to broader social norms and accusations of deviance.