Ancient Civilizations Review

Flashcards covering key vocabulary terms from ancient civilizations, including their definitions and historical context.

Ahimsa

An Indian religious principle meaning “non-violence” toward all living beings, encompassing thoughts, words, and actions. Rooted deeply in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, it emphasizes compassion, respect for life, and avoidance of harm to any sentient creature. Ahimsa profoundly shaped ethical conduct, dietary practices (leading to vegetarianism), and philosophical ideas about karma and the cycle of rebirth (samsara).

Akhenaton

Egyptian pharaoh (14th century BCE) of the New Kingdom, originally Amenhotep IV. He initiated a radical religious shift by introducing the worship of Aten, the sun disk, effectively moving Egypt toward a monotheistic system centered on a single, universal god. His reforms challenged Egypt’s powerful traditional priesthood, led to the construction of a new capital (Amarna), and influenced art styles, but they were largely reversed after his death by Tutankhamun and Horemheb, demonstrating strong resistance to religious upheaval.

Atman

In Hindu philosophy, the eternal, unchanging self or spiritual essence (soul) present in every living being. It is distinct from the physical body and mind. The central aim of Hinduism is to realize the unity of Atman with Brahman (the universal spirit or ultimate reality), which leads to moksha.

Bronze

An alloy primarily of copper and tin, first widely adopted for tools, weapons, and art during the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BCE). Its superior hardness and durability compared to copper and stone allowed for significant technological advancements in warfare, agriculture, and construction, leading to more complex societies, specialized labor, and long-distance trade networks for tin.

Covenant

In Hebrew tradition, a sacred, binding agreement or promise between God (Yahweh) and His people, Israel. This foundational concept established the Israelites as God’s chosen people, outlining mutual obligations, laws (like the Ten Commandments), and promises of protection and land. It is central to the formation of Judaism and biblical narrative.

Cuneiform

One of the earliest known writing systems, developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia around 3200 BCE. Initially using pictographs, it evolved into wedge-shaped marks pressed into wet clay tablets with a stylus. Used for record-keeping, administration, literature (like the Epic of Gilgamesh), and law (like Hammurabi's Code), it facilitated complex governance and intellectual development for nearly three millennia.

Creation Myths

Symbolic narratives and stories found in nearly all cultures that explain the origins of the world, humanity, and natural phenomena. These myths reflect fundamental religious beliefs, cosmic order, social values, and moral frameworks, often involving divine beings, primordial chaos, or cosmic eggs as elements of creation.

Dharma

In Hinduism, it refers to one's moral, ethical, and social duties appropriate to their caste (varna) and stage of life (ashrama), essential for maintaining cosmic and social order. In Buddhism, Dharma primarily refers to the teachings of the Buddha, particularly the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which provide the principles for achieving enlightenment and release from suffering.

Egyptian-Hittite Treaty

A historic peace agreement concluded between Pharaoh Ramses II of Egypt and King Hattusili III of the Hittites around 1259 BCE. This treaty, following a major conflict like the Battle of Kadesh, is the earliest surviving comprehensive written peace treaty, demonstrating sophisticated international diplomacy, mutual defense clauses, and sworn oaths between two rival great powers of the Late Bronze Age.

Gilgamesh

A legendary king of Uruk in Mesopotamian tradition (c. 2700 BCE), who became the central figure of the Epic of Gilgamesh—one of the world's oldest surviving literary masterpieces. The epic explores profound themes of kingship, deep friendship, mortality, the search for eternal life, loss, and the inevitability of death, depicting his quest alongside his companion Enkidu.

Hammurabi

Babylonian king who reigned from 1792 to 1750 BCE, renowned for issuing Hammurabi’s Code, one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes. Inscribed on a diorite stele, the code consisted of 282 laws based on principles of retribution (lex talionis, 'an eye for an eye') and social hierarchy, with punishments varying according to the social status of offenders and victims. It provided a structured legal system for his vast empire.

Harappans

The people of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE), centered in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. Known for their highly planned and organized cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, featuring sophisticated drainage systems, grid layouts, and standardized weights and measures. They engaged in extensive long-distance trade and developed a still-undeciphered writing system.

Hatshepsut

A powerful female pharaoh of Egypt’s New Kingdom (15th century BCE) who ruled for approximately two decades. She boldly asserted her authority, often depicted with male pharaonic regalia, and presided over a period of great prosperity. Her reign was marked by significant trade expeditions (notably to Punt) and extensive monumental building projects, although later pharaohs attempted to erase her from historical records.

Hebrews

An ancient Semitic people from the Near East whose cultural and religious practices formed the basis of Judaism. Distinguished by their enduring covenant with Yahweh (God) and the development of ethical monotheism, they migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan, enduring periods of bondage in Egypt and later establishing kingdoms in Israel and Judah, as chronicled in the Torah and other sacred texts.

Henotheism

A religious belief system characterized by the worship of one god as supreme, while acknowledging the existence and potential validity of other gods. This concept reflects a transitional stage between polytheism and full monotheism, where a particular deity is chosen for primary devotion without necessarily denying the pantheon of other deities (e.g., early Israelite religion focusing on Yahweh among other regional gods).

Hittites

An influential Indo-European people who established a powerful empire in Anatolia (modern Turkey) from around 1600 to 1200 BCE. They were highly skilled in warfare, particularly known for their advanced use of chariots and as early adopters and masters of iron metallurgical technology, which gave them significant military and economic advantages over Bronze Age contemporaries. They famously negotiated the Egyptian-Hittite Treaty.

Hungry Ghosts

Beings in Buddhist, Hindu, and Chinese traditions who suffer from insatiable hunger and thirst as a result of bad karma, particularly from greed or extreme attachment, accumulated in a previous life. Often depicted with large, empty stomachs and tiny necks/mouths, they symbolize the suffering caused by human desire, craving, and attachment to worldly possessions, unable to satisfy their endless appetites.

Indo-European Languages

A vast language family that originated from a common ancestral language, Proto-Indo-European, spoken around 4500-2500 BCE. This family includes many major languages spoken across Europe, the Iranian plateau, and North India, such as Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Persian, Armenian, and their numerous modern descendants including English, German, French, Spanish, Russian, and Hindi.

Iron

A ubiquitous and strong metal that largely replaced bronze as the dominant material for tools and weapons during the Iron Age (after 1200 BCE). Iron metallurgy, requiring higher temperatures and more complex forging, enabled more widespread access to harder and sharper implements, leading to significant advancements in military technology and agricultural productivity, profoundly shaping societies and economies.

Karma

A fundamental concept in Indian religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism) positing that every action, thought, and word has corresponding consequences that affect one’s future. Good actions generate positive karma, leading to favorable rebirths, while negative actions generate negative karma, perpetuating suffering and disadvantage in the cycle of samsara (rebirth). It emphasizes moral accountability and ethical conduct in achieving moksha or nirvana.

Mandate of Heaven

A pivotal Chinese political and religious concept (originating with the Zhou Dynasty, c. 1046–256 BCE) that legitimized the rule of the emperor. It asserted that heaven granted rulers the right to govern based on their virtuous and just conduct. If a ruler became unjust, tyrannical, or ineffective, they would lose the Mandate, often signaled by natural disasters or rebellions, thereby justifying dynastic change and the rise of a new ruling family.

Moksha

In Hindu belief and philosophy, the ultimate spiritual goal: liberation from samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth (reincarnation), and suffering. It is achieved through profound spiritual insight and realization of the true self (Atman) as one with the ultimate reality (Brahman), leading to a state of profound peace, freedom, and union with the divine.

New Kingdom

A prosperous and powerful period of ancient Egyptian history (c. 1550–1070 BCE). During this era, Egypt reached the height of its imperial power, with pharaohs like Thutmose III, Hatshepsut, Akhenaton, and Ramses II expanding their empire through military conquests into Nubia and the Near East, fostering monumental art and architecture (e.g., Karnak Temple, Valley of the Kings), and engaging in extensive trade.

Old Kingdom

An early and foundational period of ancient Egyptian history (c. 2686–2181 BCE), often referred to as the “Age of the Pyramids.” During this time, centralized kingship solidified, pharaohs were considered divine rulers, and the sophisticated bureaucracy and skilled labor allowed for the construction of massive stone pyramids (like those at Giza) as elaborate tombs, symbolizing the pharaoh's absolute power and divinity.

Oracle Bones

Ritual objects used for divination during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE) in ancient China. Typically made from animal scapulae (shoulder blades) or turtle plastrons (undershells), they were inscribed with questions about harvests, warfare, royal health, or weather, then heated until cracks appeared. The cracks were interpreted as divine answers, providing the earliest known examples of Chinese writing and invaluable insights into Shang dynastic politics, religion, and society.

Ostraca

Fragments of pottery shards or pieces of limestone, commonly used as cheap and readily available writing surfaces in ancient Egypt and Greece. Unlike more expensive papyrus, ostraca served as informal notepads for daily activities such as receipts, tax records, school exercises, drafts of literary texts, short letters, or even ballots in Athenian ostracisms.

Phoenicians

A highly influential seafaring people from the eastern Mediterranean coast (modern Lebanon) who flourished from approximately 1200–800 BCE. Renowned as expert traders, shipbuilders, and navigators, they established extensive maritime trade networks across the Mediterranean. Most significantly, they developed and spread a phonetic alphabet, which formed the basis for the Greek, Latin, and many other alphabets, profoundly impacting literacy and communication in the ancient world.

Regional crops

Agricultural products specific to particular geographic regions, profoundly shaping local economies, diets, and trade. Examples include barley and wheat in Mesopotamia and Egypt, which supported early urban civilizations; rice and millet in China, foundational for its population growth; corn (maize) in the Americas; and specific tubers or legumes elsewhere. The cultivation of these staples often spurred innovations in irrigation, farming techniques, and food storage.

Semitic Languages

A significant language family part of the Afro-Asiatic supergroup, spoken across the ancient Near East and into parts of Africa. Key ancient Semitic languages include Hebrew, Aramaic, Akkadian (spoken by Babylonians and Assyrians), and Phoenician, with modern descendants including Arabic, Amharic, and Tigrinya. These languages are crucial for understanding the history, culture, and religious texts (like the Torah and Quran) of the region.

Sargon

The powerful ruler of Akkad (c. 2334–2279 BCE) who created the world's first known multi-ethnic empire in Mesopotamia. Through military conquest, he unified the Sumerian city-states and expanded his domain, centralizing power, establishing a loyal bureaucracy, and fostering trade across a vast region from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, ushering in the Akkadian Empire.

Shang Dynasty

The second recognized Chinese dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE), centered along the Yellow River in north China. Known for its advanced bronze casting technology, its use of oracle bones for divination (providing the earliest Chinese writing), and sophisticated religious practices including ancestor worship and sacrifices to a supreme deity (Di). The Shang established foundational elements of early Chinese kingship, administration, and cultural identity from their capital cities like Anyang.