American Democracy Flashcards

Flashcards for reviewing key concepts related to American democracy, covering foundations, interactions among government branches, civil liberties, political ideologies, political parties and elections.

Popular sovereignty

The principle that the power of the government comes from the people; the people are the ultimate source of authority.

Natural rights

Rights all individuals are born with and cannot be taken away — typically life, liberty, and property.

Social contract

The idea that people consent to be governed in exchange for protection of their rights; if the government violates the contract, the people can alter or abolish it.

Limited government

A government whose powers are defined and restricted by a constitution or other governing document to protect individual freedoms.

Republicanism

A form of government in which elected representatives make decisions on behalf of the people.

Participatory democracy

A model of democracy that emphasizes broad and direct participation by citizens in political decisions (e.g., voting, referenda, town halls).

Pluralist democracy

A model of democracy that stresses group-based activism by nongovernmental interests striving to influence political decision making.

Elite democracy

A model of democracy where a small group of wealthy or well-educated individuals dominate decision making.

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between a national (federal) government and state governments.

Separation of powers

The division of government responsibilities into distinct branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent one branch from becoming too powerful.

Checks and balances

A system that allows each branch of government to check the powers of the others to maintain a balance of power.

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

A compromise at the Constitutional Convention combining elements of the Virginia and New Jersey Plans — creating a bicameral legislature with one chamber based on population (House) and the other with equal representation (Senate).

Three-Fifths Compromise

An agreement to count enslaved people as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes.

Electoral College

The mechanism for electing the president, where each state has a number of electors equal to its congressional representation.

Importation (Slave Trade) Compromise

An agreement to allow the international slave trade to continue until 1808 in exchange for Southern support for the Constitution.

Supremacy Clause

Establishes that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land, overriding conflicting state laws.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Grants Congress the power to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers, forming the basis for implied powers.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress the power to regulate trade between states and with foreign nations — has been used to expand federal authority.

Faction

A group of individuals with shared interests or goals that may oppose the rights of others or the common good; discussed in Federalist No. 10.

Ratification

The formal approval process of the Constitution (or any amendment); required agreement by 9 out of 13 original states for the Constitution to go into effect.

Bicameral legislature

A lawmaking body made up of two chambers — in the U.S., the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Enumerated powers

Powers specifically granted to Congress in the Constitution, such as the power to tax, declare war, and regulate interstate commerce.

Implied powers

Powers not explicitly listed in the Constitution but derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause to carry out enumerated powers.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Gives Congress authority to pass laws required to carry out its enumerated powers; expands federal legislative power.

Commerce Clause

Grants Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, between states, and with Native American tribes; widely used to justify federal regulation.

Power of the purse

The ability of Congress to control government spending and taxation, providing leverage over the executive branch.

Advice and consent

The Senate’s constitutional role to approve presidential appointments and ratify treaties.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic for delaying or blocking legislation by extending debate; requires 60 votes to overcome.

Cloture

A procedure used in the Senate to end a filibuster and bring a bill to a vote; requires 60 votes.

Hold

A Senate procedure where a senator asks to delay a bill or nomination before it reaches the floor for debate.

Unanimous consent

An agreement in the Senate that sets aside formal rules to expedite proceedings if no senator objects.

Discharge petition

A motion signed by a majority of House members to force a bill out of committee and onto the floor for a vote.

Discretionary spending

Government spending that is debated and decided annually through appropriation bills (e.g., military, education).

Mandatory spending

Required government spending set by law, often for entitlement programs like Social Security and Medicare.

Pork-barrel legislation

Government spending for localized projects secured to bring money to a representative’s district.

Logrolling

A legislative practice where lawmakers agree to support each other’s bills in exchange for mutual benefits.

Trustee model

A model of representation where lawmakers vote based on their own judgment and conscience.

Delegate model

A model of representation where lawmakers vote according to the preferences of their constituents.

Politico model

A hybrid model of representation where lawmakers alternate between trustee and delegate roles based on the situation.

Veto

The president’s constitutional power to reject a bill passed by Congress, which can be overridden with a 2/3 vote in both houses.

Pocket veto

When the president takes no action on a bill for 10 days while Congress is adjourned, and the bill fails to become law.

Executive order

A directive from the president that has the force of law but does not require congressional approval.

Signing statement

A written comment issued by the president at the time of signing legislation, often outlining how they interpret the law or plan to enforce it.

Executive agreement

An international agreement made by the president without Senate ratification, used as an alternative to a treaty.

Bully pulpit

The president’s use of visibility and media access to influence public opinion and pressure Congress.

State of the Union Address

A constitutionally required annual speech in which the president presents their legislative agenda to Congress and the nation.

Stare decisis

A judicial principle meaning “let the decision stand”; courts follow precedent when making rulings.

Judicial restraint

A judicial philosophy where judges defer to the decisions of elected branches and avoid making policy.

Judicial activism

A judicial philosophy where judges are more willing to strike down laws and shape policy through rulings.

Original jurisdiction

The authority of a court to hear a case for the first time, rather than on appeal.

Appellate jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review and potentially overturn decisions made by lower courts.

Bureaucracy

The administrative arm of the executive branch made up of departments, agencies, and commissions that implement federal policy.

Iron triangle

A mutually beneficial relationship between a bureaucratic agency, a congressional committee, and an interest group that shapes policy.

Issue network

A web of connections among interest groups, policymakers, media, and academics that collaborate to influence policy on a specific issue.

Bureaucratic discretion

The authority of federal bureaucrats to interpret and implement legislation passed by Congress.

Regulations

Rules created by executive agencies that have the force of law and guide the implementation of legislation.

Oversight

Congressional review and monitoring of the bureaucracy and executive branch to ensure laws are being properly implemented.

Civil liberties

Constitutionally protected freedoms that limit the government’s power (e.g., freedom of speech, religion).

Civil rights

Protections from discrimination based on characteristics like race, gender, or disability — often require government action to enforce.

Selective incorporation

The process by which the Supreme Court applies the Bill of Rights to the states using the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause.

Due Process Clause (14th Amendment)

Prevents state governments from depriving individuals of life, liberty, or property without fair legal procedures.

Equal Protection Clause (14th Amendment)

Requires states to treat all people equally under the law — key to civil rights cases.

Establishment Clause

Part of the 1st Amendment; prohibits the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one religion over another.

Free Exercise Clause

Part of the 1st Amendment; protects individuals’ rights to practice their religion freely, as long as it doesn't violate public morals or laws.

Clear and present danger test

A standard set by the Supreme Court to determine when speech can be limited — if it poses a clear, immediate threat (e.g., Schenck v. U.S.).

Time, place, and manner restrictions

Limits the government can place on speech as long as they are content-neutral and narrowly tailored.

Symbolic speech

Nonverbal communication (like wearing armbands or burning flags) that can be protected under the 1st Amendment.

Prior restraint

Government action that prohibits speech or publication before it occurs — generally unconstitutional unless for national security.

Obscenity

Speech not protected by the First Amendment if it meets certain criteria (e.g., lacks serious value, appeals to prurient interests).

Defamation

False statements that harm someone’s reputation — libel (written) and slander (spoken) are not protected under free speech.

Wall of separation

A metaphor for the strict division between church and state, derived from interpretations of the Establishment Clause.

Libel

A written false statement that damages a person’s reputation.

Slander

A spoken false statement that damages a person’s reputation.

Exclusionary rule

A legal rule that prohibits evidence obtained illegally (without a warrant or probable cause) from being used in court.

Right to privacy

An implied right derived from several constitutional protections (e.g., due process, property rights); key to decisions on contraception, abortion, etc.

Compelling government interest

A legal concept requiring the government to have a very strong reason to limit fundamental rights, especially in cases involving discrimination.

Affirmative action

Government or institutional policies designed to increase opportunities for historically marginalized groups, often in education or employment.

Strict scrutiny

The highest standard of judicial review; laws involving fundamental rights or suspect classifications (like race) must serve a compelling government interest and be narrowly tailored.

Intermediate scrutiny

A judicial standard used for cases involving gender discrimination; the law must serve an important government interest and be substantially related to that interest.

Rational basis test

A standard of judicial review where the law must be reasonably related to a legitimate government interest — used in most cases of economic or age discrimination.

Political socialization

The process by which individuals develop their political beliefs and values — influenced by family, education, peers, media, religion, and civic institutions.

Demographic characteristics

Traits such as race, gender, age, income, religion, and region that influence political beliefs and voting behavior.

Lifecycle effects

Changes in political beliefs and behavior that occur over the course of a person’s life (e.g., younger people may be more liberal, older people more conservative).

Generational effects

The impact of historical events on a specific generation’s political attitudes (e.g., 9/11, the Great Recession, COVID-19).

Public opinion

The collective attitudes and beliefs of the public on political issues, leaders, institutions, and events.

Opinion poll

A survey of a sample of the population to estimate public opinion on various topics.

Benchmark poll

An initial poll used in an election campaign to establish baseline levels of support for a candidate or issue.

Tracking poll

Ongoing surveys that track changes in public opinion over time, often daily during a campaign.

Entrance poll

A poll conducted before voters enter their polling places, used to predict election results.

Exit poll

A poll conducted after voters have cast their ballots, often used by media to project winners and analyze voter behavior.

Sampling techniques

Methods used to select a representative group of people to participate in a poll (e.g., random sampling).

Random sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected; key for accuracy and low bias.

Sampling error (margin of error)

The level of confidence in the accuracy of poll results; a smaller margin indicates greater precision.

Question wording

The phrasing of questions in a poll — can influence respondents’ answers and affect reliability.

Ideology

A consistent set of political beliefs and values about the role of government.

Political ideology

A person’s coherent set of views about politics and government; includes beliefs about policy, economics, and social issues.

Liberal ideology

Belief in a more active government to promote social welfare and equality, government regulation of business, and protection of civil liberties.

Conservative ideology

Belief in limited government, free-market economics, traditional social values, and strong national defense.

Libertarian ideology

Belief in very limited government, strong protection of individual liberties, and minimal regulation in both social and economic areas.

Party platforms

A political party’s statement of its goals and policies for the next four years; reflects its ideological positions.