Module 0 AP Psychology *24 CED

cultural norms

behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct

What is an Independent Variable (IV)?

The variable that a researcher actively manipulates.

What role does the Independent Variable play in an experiment?

It is the variable that, if the hypothesis is correct, will cause a change in the dependent variable.

What are confounding variables (CV)?

Extraneous variables that cannot be controlled by the researcher and could influence any change in the dependent variables (DV).

How do confounding variables affect research?

They can reduce the ability of researchers to determine a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured by the researcher

third variable

a variable, often unmeasured in correlational research, that can be the true explanation for the relationship between two other variables

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

null hypothesis

A prediction that there is no difference between groups or conditions, or a statement or an idea that can be falsified, or proved wrong.

Falsifiability

a feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

replication study

a study generated from previous research studies in which the research is reproduced to validate findings, increase generalizability, or eliminate or minimize limitations

central tendency

mean, median, mode

measure of variation

A measure of how much a collection of data is spread out. Commonly used types include range and quartiles. (Also known as spread or dispersion.)

percentile rank

the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

range

Difference between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.

normal curve (normal distribution)

a bell-shaped curve that depicts the distribution of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% within one standard deviation, 95% within two)

positive skew

this distribution has a longer right tail than left tail, and a large area below the curve on the left side. It has a positive outlier. the mean is usually greater than the median

negative skew

this distribution has a longer left tail than right tail, and a large area below the curve on the right side. It has a negative outlier.the mean is usually less than the median

bimodal distribution

a type of probability distribution that has two distinct peaks or modes in a data set

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

Sample

A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.

Population

a group of organisms of the same species populating a given area

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

convenience sampling

using a sample of people who are readily available to participate

Generalizing

the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Placebo

a fake drug used in the testing of medication

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

single-blind study

study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group

double-blind study

study in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know if the subjects are in the experimental or control group

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

social desirability bias

the tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable

Qualitative Research

research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data

Quantitative Research

research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

likert scales

measurement scales in which the respondent specifies a level of agreement or disagreement with statements expressing either a favorable or an unfavorable attitude toward the concept under study

peer review

A process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research.

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

effect size

a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the extent of an experimental effect

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

directionality problem

a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

third variable problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Informed Assent

a process that allows minors to participate in clinical trials and research by agreeing to take part. It's similar to informed consent, but assent is given by people who aren't legally able to provide informed consent, such as children or people with cognitive impairments. For example, in the US, the legal age of consent is usually 18 years old.

Protection from harm

Participants should not be put through anything they wouldn't normally be expected to.

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants