Gender section English language

What did George Keith and John Shuttleworth suggest about women's language?

Women talk more than men, talk too much, are more polite, indecisive, hesitant, complain, nag, ask more questions, support each other, and are more cooperative.

What did George Keith and John Shuttleworth suggest about men's language?

Men swear more, don’t talk about emotions, talk about sport, talk about women and machines similarly, insult each other, are competitive, dominate conversation, speak with authority, give more commands, and interrupt more.

What were Otto Jespersen’s views on women’s language?

Women talk a lot, use half-finished sentences, link sentences with "and" due to emotion, use too many adjectives/adverbs, have smaller vocabularies, and speak fluently but without precision.

What sexist assumption did Jespersen make about women and vocabulary?

That women have a smaller vocabulary and use less sophisticated language than men.

What did Jespersen claim about women's use of adjectives?

They use words like "pretty" and "nice" too much, and often say "so pretty", "so nice".

What did Jespersen claim about women’s use of foreign languages?

Women often gain spoken mastery faster but men outperform in translating difficult texts.

Who wrote Language and Woman’s Place and what model did she propose?

Robin Lakoff (1975); she proposed the Deficit Model.

What are some features of women's language according to Lakoff?

Hedges, tag questions, empty adjectives, apologising more, super polite forms, rising intonation in statements.

What is the Deficit Model?

The idea that women’s language is weaker or lacking compared to men’s "norm".

What is the Dominance Model?

The idea that men dominate conversations, and language reflects patriarchal social structures.

What did Zimmerman and West find in their 1975 study?

In mixed-gender conversations, 96% of interruptions were by men, suggesting dominance.

What did Dale Spender argue in Man Made Language?

Language is patriarchal and controlled by men; women’s language reflects male dominance.

What is the Difference Model?

Men and women speak differently because they belong to different cultural subgroups.

Who proposed the Difference Model and what book did she write?

Deborah Tannen, You Just Don’t Understand (1990).

What does Deborah Tannen mean by "report talk"?

Male speech focused on status, independence, and information.

What does Deborah Tannen mean by "rapport talk"?

Female speech focused on relationships, support, and empathy.

Name three of Tannen’s male vs female contrasts.

Status vs Support, Independence vs Intimacy, Orders vs Proposals.

How did Robin Lakoff describe women’s pitch and grammar?

Women speak more quietly, use a higher pitch range, and hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation.

What are "empty adjectives" and who uses them more according to Lakoff?

Words like “divine”, “lovely”, and “adorable”; used more by women.

What are "minimal responses" in conversation and who uses them more?

Short supportive cues like “mm”, “yeah”; women use them more to show active listening.

What did O’Barr and Atkins study?

Language use in courtroom settings to test Lakoff’s theory.

What did O’Barr and Atkins conclude about "women’s language"?

That it is actually “powerless language” used by both men and women in lower-power situations.

What is the key criticism of Lakoff’s Deficit Model?

It was based on personal observation and reinforces stereotypes.

What is one main criticism of early language and gender research?

It mostly focused on white, middle-class American speakers, ignoring social diversity and context.

What did O’Barr and Atkins rename Lakoff’s “women’s language”?

Powerless language.