anatomy & physiology second semester final exam review
Describe how the sense of smell works.
Olfactory receptors are stimulated and nerve impulses travel through olfactory nerves all the way to limbic system (for emotion) and olfactory cortex (for interpretation)
Describe how the sense of taste works.
Sensory impulses from taste receptors travel along cranial nerves to medulla oblongata to thalamus to the gustatory cortex (for interpretation)
Trace the path of sound waves from the external acoustic meatus to the hearing receptors.
External acoustic meatus
Tympanic membrane
Auricle
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
Oval window
Cochlea
Vestibules
Hearing receptors
What is the name of the ear bones and what do they do?
Malleus (hammer) - causes vibrations made by sound waves in the inner ear
Incus (anvil) - move vibrations from malleus to stapes
Stapes (stirrup) - vibrations fluid in the ear which stimulates receptors for sound
Describe the cochlea and its function.
Snail shaped tube in the inner ear that interprets sound and allows you to hear
What is the difference between static and dynamic equilibrium? Which structures do these?
Static - when the head and body are still; Dynamic - when the head and body are moving
The vestibules, canals, and ampulla
What are the three layers of the eye and what is each of their function?
Outer tunic - covers pupil and iris
Middle tunic - allows light to focus on the retina
Inner tunic - converts light into an image so we can see it
Why does the pupil constrict or dilate?
To reduce the amount of light that comes in or to allow more light to come in
How is light focused on the retina?
The cornea and lens bend the light so it focuses on the retina
What is the difference between rods and cones?
Rods - more sensitive, see in dim light, black and white vision
Cones - sharp images, detects color
What is the difference between the endocrine and exocrine glands?
Endocrine - ductless and secrete into the bloodstream
Exocrine - have ducts and secrete into the intestines
What is a hormone?
Hormone - travel through bloodstream to target cells
Explain the two ways in which the brain controls the pituitary gland.
Hypothalmus and nervous control
Know the actions of the hormones from the pituitary gland.
Oxytocin - contracts the uterine walls during labor; helps with milk production
Antidiuretic hormone - saves water, don't pee
Luteinizing hormone - release sex hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormone - produces egg and sperm
Adrenocorticotropic hormone - tells adrenal gland to secrete more hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone - controls T3 and T4 secretion
Prolactin - stimulates milk production
Growth hormone - stimulates growth
What are the three hormones that are secreted by the thyroid and what is their action?
Thyroxine (T4) - controls metabolism
Triiodothyronine (T3) - controls metabolism
Calcitonin - lowers blood calcium levels by making bones
What is the hormone that is secreted by the parathyroid gland and what is its action?
Parathyroid hormone - raises blood calcium levels by breaking down bones
What two hormones are secreted by the pancreas and what do they do?
Glucagon - raises blood sugar levels
Insulin - lowers blood sugar levels
What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
Type 1 - juvenile, autoimmune disease, and typically before age 30
Type 2 - adult onset, develops as you age, and most common in overweight people
What are the different types of blood cells and what are their scientific names?
Red blood cells - erythrocytes
White blood cells - leukocytes
Platelets - thrombocytes
What makes blood red? What carries oxygen? What is hemoglobin called with and without oxygen?
Iron
Hemoglobin
Oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin
What is a deficiency in hemoglobin or red blood cells called?
anemia
What are the 5 types of leukocytes and what is their function?
Neutrophils - first to arrive at infections, phagocytic, elevated in bacterial infections; 54%-62%
Eosinophils - defend against parasitic worms infestation; 1%-3%
Basophils - release histamine and heparin; less that 1%
Monocytes - leave bloodstream to become macrophages; 3%-9%
Lymphocytes - important to immunity and produce antibodies; 25%-33%
What are the three main proteins found in blood and what is their function?
Albumin - keep water in blood
Globulin - transporters in blood
Fibrinogen - blood clotting
What is an embolism and what is a thrombosis? What would they be called if they occurred in the heart or the lungs or the brain?
Embolism - a dislodged or moving blood clot
Thrombosis - blood clot abnormally forms in a vessel
Myocardial infarction - heart attack, caused by either a coronary thrombosis or coronary embolism
Stroke - a cerebral thrombosis or cerebral embolism
Pulmonary embolism - blood clot in lungs
What are antigens, antibodies, and what is agglutination?
Antigens - cell surface markers, ID tags
Antibodies - look for antigens that are NOT suppose to be there (inspect)
Agglutination - clumping or clotting of RBCs when testing for compatibility
Know what antigens and antibodies the four main blood types have.
Type A has A antigens and B antibodies
Type B has B antigens and A antibodies
Type AB has both A and B antigens and no antibodies
Type O has no antigens and both A and B antibodies.
Know which blood type and can give or receive from the other blood types.
Type A can receive Type A or O
Type B can receive Type B or O
Type AB can receive all types
Type O can receive Type O
What is erythroblastosis fetalis?
When an Rh- mom has an Rh+ child and the antibodies attack and destroys the babies RBCs, which leads to the baby dying
Draw a heart and label the 4 chambers and the 4 valves.
4 chambers:
Left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, and right ventricle
4 valves:
Tricuspid (right atriovascular valve) \n Pulmonary valve \n Bicuspid (mitral or left atriovascular valve) \n Aortic valve
List the path of blood flow through the heart and major blood vessels.
Superior or inferior vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary arteries
Lungs
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Bicuspid/Mitral valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aorta
Back to the body
Describe a cardiac cycle and include the various changes in pressure in the atria and ventricles.
Atria contracts - ventricle relaxes \n Ventricle contracts - atria relaxes \n Both relax for a brief interval
Describe and explain the normal ECG pattern (QRS wave).
P - Atria contracts \n Q - Atria relaxes \n R - Both relaxes \n S - Ventricle contracts \n T - Ventricle relaxes
What are the major organs of the alimentary canal?
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
What are accessory organs of the digestive system?
Pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and salivary glands
Distinguish between the functions of the four layers of the alimentary canal.
Mucosa - for secretion and absorption
Submucosa - nourishment and absorption
Muscular layer - provides movement of the tube
Serosa layer - protects glands and allows for internal organs to glide past each other
Where does the carbohydrate digestion begin? Where are they absorbed?
Begins in the mouth; absorbed in the small intestine
Where does protein digestion begin? Where are they absorbed?
Begins in the stomach; absorbed in the small intestine
Where does lipid digestion begin? Where are they absorbed?
In the small intestine
Know the main anatomical structures for the respiratory system.
Nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, lungs
How many lobes are in each lung?
Left lobe - 2 \n Right lobe - 3
Explain how changes in volume and pressure get air into and out of the lungs.
As volume increases, pressure decreases \n As volume decrease, pressure increases
What is the main breathing muscle?
diaphragm
What is ventilation, cellular respiration, internal respiration, external respiration?
Ventilation - breathing; air moving in and out of lungs
Cellular respiration - the processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert chemical energy from oxygen
Internal respiration - exchange of gas between blood and body cells
External respiration - exchange of gas between air in lungs and blood
What is coughing?
Removing or cleaning substance from lower respiratory tract
Explain why oxygen and carbon dioxide move from the blood to the air and vice versa.
Because of the high to low pressure
Know the main anatomical structures of the urinary system.
Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
What does retroperitoneal mean?
Behind the peritoneal cavity, not in abdominal cavity
What percent of cardiac output goes to the kidneys?
20%
What chemical does the kidneys release to control blood pressure?
renin
What is the waste product produced by the kidneys?
urine
What is glomerular filtrate? What happens to most of it?
Fluid that is filtered out of the blood and it gets reabsorbed
Which part of the nephron does most of the reabsorption?
Proximal convulated tubule
Explain the angiotensin system.
It is the second control system
What do ACE inhibitors?
They prevent from angiotensin II being made, which narrows blood vessels
Should you have sugar or protein in your urine? If you do, what does that mean?
No. You are a type 1 diabetic if sugar in urine and your kidneys have serious damage if protein in urine
What produces uric acid?
The metabolism of organic bases
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
A part of the distal convoluted tubule that secretes renin
What is yawning?
Causes deep breath to provide more oxygen to lungs
What is sneezing?
Clears upper respiratory tract
What is hiccuping?
Sudden inspiration due ot spasmodic contraction of diaphragm while glottis is closed
What is a target cell?
Target cell - have a specific protein receptors for hormones