A&P 2nd Sem Final

anatomy & physiology second semester final exam review

Describe how the sense of smell works.

Olfactory receptors are stimulated and nerve impulses travel through olfactory nerves all the way to limbic system (for emotion) and olfactory cortex (for interpretation)

Describe how the sense of taste works.

Sensory impulses from taste receptors travel along cranial nerves to medulla oblongata to thalamus to the gustatory cortex (for interpretation)

Trace the path of sound waves from the external acoustic meatus to the hearing receptors.

1. External acoustic meatus
2. Tympanic membrane
3. Auricle
4. Malleus
5. Incus
6. Stapes
7. Oval window
8. Cochlea
9. Vestibules
10. Hearing receptors

What is the name of the ear bones and what do they do?

Malleus (hammer) - causes vibrations made by sound waves in the inner ear

Incus (anvil) - move vibrations from malleus to stapes

Stapes (stirrup) - vibrations fluid in the ear which stimulates receptors for sound

Describe the cochlea and its function.

Snail shaped tube in the inner ear that interprets sound and allows you to hear

What is the difference between static and dynamic equilibrium? Which structures do these?

1. Static - when the head and body are still; Dynamic - when the head and body are moving
2. The vestibules, canals, and ampulla

What are the three layers of the eye and what is each of their function?

Outer tunic - covers pupil and iris

Middle tunic - allows light to focus on the retina

Inner tunic - converts light into an image so we can see it

Why does the pupil constrict or dilate?

To reduce the amount of light that comes in or to allow more light to come in

How is light focused on the retina?

The cornea and lens bend the light so it focuses on the retina

What is the difference between rods and cones?

Rods - more sensitive, see in dim light, black and white vision

Cones - sharp images, detects color

What is the difference between the endocrine and exocrine glands?

Endocrine - ductless and secrete into the bloodstream

Exocrine - have ducts and secrete into the intestines

What is a hormone?

Hormone - travel through bloodstream to target cells

Explain the two ways in which the brain controls the pituitary gland.

Hypothalmus and nervous control

Know the actions of the hormones from the pituitary gland.

Oxytocin - contracts the uterine walls during labor; helps with milk production

Antidiuretic hormone - saves water, don't pee

Luteinizing hormone - release sex hormones

Follicle-stimulating hormone - produces egg and sperm

Adrenocorticotropic hormone - tells adrenal gland to secrete more hormone

Thyroid-stimulating hormone - controls T3 and T4 secretion

Prolactin - stimulates milk production

Growth hormone - stimulates growth

What are the three hormones that are secreted by the thyroid and what is their action?

Thyroxine (T4) - controls metabolism

Triiodothyronine (T3) - controls metabolism

Calcitonin - lowers blood calcium levels by making bones

What is the hormone that is secreted by the parathyroid gland and what is its action?

Parathyroid hormone - raises blood calcium levels by breaking down bones

What two hormones are secreted by the pancreas and what do they do?

Glucagon - raises blood sugar levels

Insulin - lowers blood sugar levels

What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?

Type 1 - juvenile, autoimmune disease, and typically before age 30

Type 2 - adult onset, develops as you age, and most common in overweight people

What are the different types of blood cells and what are their scientific names?

Red blood cells - erythrocytes

White blood cells - leukocytes

Platelets - thrombocytes

What makes blood red? What carries oxygen? What is hemoglobin called with and without oxygen?

1. Iron
2. Hemoglobin
3. Oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin

What is a deficiency in hemoglobin or red blood cells called?

anemia

What are the 5 types of leukocytes and what is their function?

Neutrophils - first to arrive at infections, phagocytic, elevated in bacterial infections; 54%-62%

Eosinophils - defend against parasitic worms infestation; 1%-3%

Basophils - release histamine and heparin; less that 1%

Monocytes - leave bloodstream to become macrophages; 3%-9%

Lymphocytes - important to immunity and produce antibodies; 25%-33%

What are the three main proteins found in blood and what is their function?

Albumin - keep water in blood

Globulin - transporters in blood

Fibrinogen - blood clotting

What is an embolism and what is a thrombosis? What would they be called if they occurred in the heart or the lungs or the brain?

Embolism - a dislodged or moving blood clot

Thrombosis - blood clot abnormally forms in a vessel

Myocardial infarction - heart attack, caused by either a coronary thrombosis or coronary embolism

Stroke - a cerebral thrombosis or cerebral embolism

Pulmonary embolism - blood clot in lungs

What are antigens, antibodies, and what is agglutination?

Antigens - cell surface markers, ID tags

Antibodies - look for antigens that are NOT suppose to be there (inspect)

Agglutination - clumping or clotting of RBCs when testing for compatibility

Know what antigens and antibodies the four main blood types have.

Type A has A antigens and B antibodies

Type B has B antigens and A antibodies

Type AB has both A and B antigens and no antibodies

Type O has no antigens and both A and B antibodies.

Know which blood type and can give or receive from the other blood types.

Type A can receive Type A or O

Type B can receive Type B or O

Type AB can receive all types

Type O can receive Type O

What is erythroblastosis fetalis?

When an Rh- mom has an Rh+ child and the antibodies attack and destroys the babies RBCs, which leads to the baby dying

Draw a heart and label the 4 chambers and the 4 valves.

4 chambers:

Left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, and right ventricle

4 valves:

Tricuspid (right atriovascular valve) \n Pulmonary valve \n Bicuspid (mitral or left atriovascular valve) \n Aortic valve

List the path of blood flow through the heart and major blood vessels.

1. Superior or inferior vena cava
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve
4. Right ventricle
5. Pulmonary valve
6. Pulmonary arteries
7. Lungs
8. Pulmonary veins
9. Left atrium
10. Bicuspid/Mitral valve
11. Left ventricle
12. Aortic valve
13. Aorta
14. Back to the body

Describe a cardiac cycle and include the various changes in pressure in the atria and ventricles.

Atria contracts - ventricle relaxes \n Ventricle contracts - atria relaxes \n Both relax for a brief interval

Describe and explain the normal ECG pattern (QRS wave).

P - Atria contracts \n Q - Atria relaxes \n R - Both relaxes \n S - Ventricle contracts \n T - Ventricle relaxes

What are the major organs of the alimentary canal?

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine

What are accessory organs of the digestive system?

Pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and salivary glands

Distinguish between the functions of the four layers of the alimentary canal.

Mucosa - for secretion and absorption

Submucosa - nourishment and absorption

Muscular layer - provides movement of the tube

Serosa layer - protects glands and allows for internal organs to glide past each other

Where does the carbohydrate digestion begin? Where are they absorbed?

Begins in the mouth; absorbed in the small intestine

Where does protein digestion begin? Where are they absorbed?

Begins in the stomach; absorbed in the small intestine

Where does lipid digestion begin? Where are they absorbed?

In the small intestine

Know the main anatomical structures for the respiratory system.

Nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, lungs

How many lobes are in each lung?

Left lobe - 2 \n Right lobe - 3

Explain how changes in volume and pressure get air into and out of the lungs.

As volume increases, pressure decreases \n As volume decrease, pressure increases

What is the main breathing muscle?

diaphragm

What is ventilation, cellular respiration, internal respiration, external respiration?

Ventilation - breathing; air moving in and out of lungs

Cellular respiration - the processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert chemical energy from oxygen

Internal respiration - exchange of gas between blood and body cells

External respiration - exchange of gas between air in lungs and blood

What is coughing?

Removing or cleaning substance from lower respiratory tract

Explain why oxygen and carbon dioxide move from the blood to the air and vice versa.

Because of the high to low pressure

Know the main anatomical structures of the urinary system.

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra

What does retroperitoneal mean?

Behind the peritoneal cavity, not in abdominal cavity

What percent of cardiac output goes to the kidneys?

20%

What chemical does the kidneys release to control blood pressure?

renin

What is the waste product produced by the kidneys?

urine

What is glomerular filtrate? What happens to most of it?

Fluid that is filtered out of the blood and it gets reabsorbed

Which part of the nephron does most of the reabsorption?

Proximal convulated tubule

Explain the angiotensin system.

It is the second control system

What do ACE inhibitors?

They prevent from angiotensin II being made, which narrows blood vessels

Should you have sugar or protein in your urine? If you do, what does that mean?

No. You are a type 1 diabetic if sugar in urine and your kidneys have serious damage if protein in urine

What produces uric acid?

The metabolism of organic bases

What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A part of the distal convoluted tubule that secretes renin

What is yawning?

Causes deep breath to provide more oxygen to lungs

What is sneezing?

Clears upper respiratory tract

What is hiccuping?

Sudden inspiration due ot spasmodic contraction of diaphragm while glottis is closed

What is a target cell?

Target cell - have a specific protein receptors for hormones