genetics vocab microbio

Replication

The process of making an exact copy of DNA before a cell divides so each new cell gets the same genetic information.

Transcription

The process of copying a gene's DNA sequence into messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries the instructions for making a protein.

Translation

The process where ribosomes read the mRNA sequence and use it to build a protein by joining amino acids together.

Transduction

The transfer of bacterial DNA from one bacterium to another by a bacteriophage (virus that infects bacteria).

Transformation

The process in which a bacterium takes up free DNA from its environment and incorporates it into its own DNA.

Conjugation

The process where one bacterium transfers DNA directly to another bacterium through a pilus (sex pilus).

Genetics

The study of genes, DNA, and how traits are inherited and passed from one generation to the next.

Genome

The complete set of an organism's genetic material (DNA or RNA).

Genes

Segments of DNA that contain the instructions for making proteins and determining an organism's traits.

DNA

The molecule that stores an organism’s genetic information and instructions for making proteins and controlling cell functions.

RNA

A molecule that helps carry and use genetic information from DNA to make proteins.

Nucleic Acids

Large molecules (DNA and RNA) that store, transmit, and help use genetic information in cells.

Nucleotides

The small building blocks that make up nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Each nucleotide contains a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

Hydrogen bond

A weak attraction between molecules or atoms that helps hold DNA strands together by connecting complementary nitrogen bases (A-T and G-C).

Antiparallel (5’ and 3’)

The arrangement of the two DNA strands running in opposite directions—one strand runs 5’ to 3’ and the other runs 3’ to 5’. This allows DNA to be copied correctly.

Plasmid

A small, circular piece of DNA found in bacteria that can replicate independently and often carries useful genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.

Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence that can alter genetic information and may affect an organism’s traits.

Lateral/Horizontal Gene Transfer

The movement of genetic material between organisms of the same generation (especially bacteria), rather than from parent to offspring. It allows bacteria to gain new traits, such as antibiotic resistance.

Vertical Gene Transfer

The transfer of genetic material from parent cell to offspring cell during reproduction or cell division.

Reverse Transcription

The process of making DNA from an RNA template using the enzyme reverse transcriptase. It is used by retroviruses like HIV.

Genotype

The specific genetic makeup or DNA sequence of an organism that determines its traits.

Phenotype

The observable traits or characteristics of an organism that result from its genotype and environment.

Ribosome

A cellular structure that reads mRNA and builds proteins by joining amino acids together.

codon

A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid or signals the start or stop of protein production.

Anticodon

A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that pairs with a matching mRNA codon to bring the correct amino acid during protein synthesis.

Promoter

A region of DNA where RNA polymerase binds to begin transcription of a gene.

Start codon

The mRNA codon (usually AUG) that signals the beginning of translation and tells the ribosome to start making a protein.

Stop codon

A mRNA codon that signals the ribosome to stop translation and end protein production

Naked DNA

DNA that is not surrounded by a protective protein coat or envelope. In bacteria, naked DNA can be taken up from the environment during transformation.

Competent Cell

A cell that is able to take up foreign DNA from its environment during transformation.