Bio 102 Richard Mccain Exam 4

last one before final

Invert Circulatory system

sponges,cnidarians, and nematodes lack seperate circulatory system

Arthropods and Mollusks have an open circulatory system

Larger animals require separate circulatory system for transport

Open circulatory system

no distinction between circulating and extracellular fluid

fluid called hemolymph

Closed Circulatory system

Distinct circulatory system enclosed in blood vessels

annelid worms and vertebrates

Vertebrate circulatory systems

Pulmonary circulation moves bllood between heart and lungs

Systemic Circulation moves blood betweent he heart and the rest of the body

Vertebrate circulatory systems: fish

evolved a true chamber-pump heart

two chambers

blood pumped through gills and then to rest of the body

Vertebrate circulatory systems: Amphibians

• advent of lungs required second pumping circuit

• 3 chambered heart

Vertebrate circulatory systems: Reptiles

• 3 chambered heart

• 2 atria and 2 ventricles

• incomplete separation of ventricles(Septated

Vertebrate circulatory systems: Mammals, Birds, and crocs

• 4 chambered heart

• 2 atria and 2 ventricles

• right atrium gets body blood which goes to right ventricle which pumps to lung

• left atrium gets lung blood which goes to left ventricle which pumps to body

Blood

Connective tissue

• extracellular matrix - plasma

• cells - RBC, WBC, Platelets

Functions

• transportation

• regulation

• protection

Blood plasma

92% water

contains solutes

• nutrients

• ions

  • Na, Cl, HCO3, Ca, Mg, Cu, K, Zn

• proteins

  • Albumin, globulins

  • Fibrinogen

If removed, plasma is called serum

Ertthrocytes

5 mil per microliter

mature ones lack nuclei in mammals

live for 120 days

contain hemoglobin in verts

Blood types

Can have type A, B, both, or neither glycoproteins

these serve as antigens which is why you gotta do the matching game

Leukocytes

>1% of blood cells

larger than erythrocytes and have nuclei

Granular Leukocytes

• Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

Agranular leukocytes

• monocytes and lymphocytes

Granular Leukocytes

Agranular Leukocytes

Platelets

Function in formation of blood clots

Characterisitcs of blood vessels

blood leaves heart through arteries

aterioles finest

blood goes from these to capillaries

blood collected in venules, which lead to larger vessels, veins

veins carry blood back to heart

Layers of blood vessels

ateries and veins have four layers

• endothelium

• elastic fibers

• smooth muscle

• connective tissue

Too thick for exchange

Capillaries have one layer of endothelial cells

• allow rapid exchange of gases and other stuff

Filtering the blood

moves into interstitial space and lymph capillaries by diffusion

Lymphatic system

Significant amount of water and solutes in blood plasma filter through walls of capillaries

fluid that does not return to capillaries is returned by lymphatic system

• a network of tissues, vessels, and organs that work together to move lymph back to blood stream

Structure of heart

Coronary system

keep heart musculature oxygenated

mammal heart valves

1. Atrioventricular valves

   • maintain unidirectional blood flow from atria to ventricles

   • tricuspid on the right

   • bicuspid on the left

2. Semilunar valves

   • ensure one way flow from ventricles to vessels

   • Pulmonary valve to lungs

   • aortic valve to body

Cardiac Cycle

Valves open and close as heart cycles

Ventricles relaxed is diastole

Ventricles contracted is systole

Lub - AV valves closing

Dub- closing of other valves

Phases of Cardiac Cycle

Blood pressure

pressure exerted by blood on walls of blood vessel that helps to push blood through body

systolic blood pressure measures BP on beats

diastolic blood pressure measures BP off beats

Blood pressure effectors

Increases with blood volume

Blood volume is regulated by four hormones

1.Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

2.Aldosterone – encourages kidney to excrete potassium and retain sodium

3.Atrial natriuretic hormone – increases sodium excretion and decreases blood pressure

4.Nitric oxide (NO) – vasodilator

Osmoregulators

evolved mechanisms to adapt to a variety of environments

• the cost is energy

Osmoconformers

internal environment is osmotic relation to the external environment

• restricted to certain environs

• spend less energy on osmo regulation

Osmoregulation

process of maintenance of salt and water balance(osmotic balance) across membranes within the body fluids

so that cells don’t shrink or swell

Important ions to Osmoregulation

NA, K, Ca, Mg

Cl, CO3, HCO3,PO3

Body fluid regulation

excretory system regulaes body fluid concentrations

• key function: reabsorption

dependent on mineral ions

Body fluid regulation within aqua

marine environment

• osmotic loss of water

• gain of ions by drinking water

Fresh water

• promote gain of water by osmosis

• loss of ions as excess water is excreted

Urinary system

Kidneys makes

ureter moves

urinary bladder holds

urethra voids

Kidneys

Renal Cortex

• outer region

Renal medulla

• cone shaped renal pyramids

Renal pelvis

• hollow chambered innermost part

Kidney anatomy

Nephron

Functional unit of kidney

Nephron Anatomy

Urine formation

1. glomerular filtration in glomerular capsule

2. tubular reabsorption at proximal convoluted tube

3. tubular secretion at distal convoluted tubule

Urine Homeostasis

excretion of hypertonic urine

dependent on reabsorption of wate

absorbed from

• loop of nephron

• collecting duct

ADH plays a role in water reabsorption

Excretory organs in unicells

use exocytosis

Excretory organs in inverts

most animals have tubular excretory organs

• Flame cells in planarians

• Nephridia in earthwroms

• Malpighian tubules in insects

Aqautic animals regulation

inverts

• most isotonic with water

• osmoconfromers

Bony fishes

• body fluids of bony fishes with only moderate amount of salt

• osmoregulators

• some adjust to both, most cant’

Cartilaginous

• achieve isotonicity by having organic compounds in blood

Terrestrial animals

lose water through excretion and respiration

must drink water to make up

• some reduce this loss by excreting nitrogen

• some ahve highly convoluted nasal passage

Maintenance of blood pH, Osmolarity, volume, and pressure

more than 99% of sodium filtered at glomerulus returned to blood

Reabsorption of sodium regulated by hormones

• aldosterone

• renin

• atrial natriuretic peptide hormone

ph adjusted by either

• reabsorption of bicarbonate ions

• secretion of hydrogen ions

Nitrogenous waste products

Catabolism of amino acids and nucleic acids results in ammonia

• high solubility allows to be execreted directly by many aqautic animals

• terrestrial animals must convert to urea

• urea causes loss of much water

  • mammals and amphibians

• uric acid losses less water

  • reptiles, birds, and arthropods

Hormonol control of osmoregulation

Hormone	Where produced	Function
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine	Adrenal medulla	Can decrease kidney function temporarily by vasoconstriction
Renin	Kidney nephrons	Increases blood pressure by acting on angiotensinogen
Angiotensin	Liver	Angiotensin II affects multiple processes and increases blood pressure
Aldosterone	Adrenal cortex	Prevents loss of sodium and water
Anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin)	Hypothalamus (stored in the posterior pituitary)	Prevents water loss
Atrial natriuretic peptide	Heart atrium	Decreases blood pressure by acting as a vasodilator and increasing glomerular filtration rate; decreases sodium reabsorption in kidneys

Hormonal control: RAAS

Innate immune system

• found in all of animals, and some plants

• nonspecfic

• no memory

Physical/chemical barriers

• skin

• normal flora on the skin

• mucous and cilia in the respiratory tract

• low pH in stomach

• antimicrobial peptides

Adaptive immune system

• only in vertebrate

• highly specific

• has memory

Pathogen recognition

Microbes have different cell surface markers

anything foreign is antigen

cells recognize pathogen associated molecular patterns and phagocytize

markers not specfic

White blood cells

Inflammatory Response

Pain

heat

redness and swelling

• due to increased vascular permeability to allow WBCs to leave capillaries and enter tissues

Natural KIller Cells

kill virus infected or alter self cells

Adaptive immune response

after exposure to an antigen and innate is insufficeient to deal with it

two types:

1. cell mediated immune response by T-cells

2. humoral immune response contrlled by B cells and antibodies

Can take days or weeks to start up

Antigen

macromolecule that reacts with immune system, contains a motif that is made of epitopes

memory of adaptive

highly specific antibodies made by B cells and T-cell Receptors made by T cells

• b cells and t cells can distinguish between different motifs

Humoral immune response

B cells

• mature in bone marrow

• make antibodies

• antibodies are proteins

• each B cell produces antibodies with specfic variable region

• can be secreted or membrane bound

Humoral antibodies

Antibody functions

Neutralization

Antibodies precent virus or toxic protein from binding to target

Opsonization

pathogen tagged by antibodies is consumed by WBCs

Complement Activation

antibodies attached to the surface of a pathogen cell activate the complement system

Major Histocompatability Complex

System that allows large proteins in immune system cells to identify compatible or foreign proteins

MHC clas 1

found on all of our nucleated cells

MHC class 2

found on antigen presenting cells

• b cells

• dendritic cells

• macrophages

APCs

group of immune cells that process and present antigens for recognition by certain lymphocytes such as t cells

T cells

mature in thymus

T cell receptor is membrane bound

• also encoded in our DNA

• recognized specific antigens presented in MHC molecules

3 pops of T cells

1. helper t cells CD4

2. cytotoxic t cells CD8

3. t regulatory cells

Cell mediated response p. 1

Cell mediated response p. 2

Cell mediated response p. 3

Variable region of B and t cells change

process called gene rearrangment

• region of DNA that codes for variable region rearranges

• results in high diversity

Difference between B and T cells

Lymphatic system

most blood cells erythrocytes

leukocytes have ability of migrating into the tissues

lymph nodes have congregation of B, T and other white blood cells there

when antigen goes through these, it is detected and more of it is found

Primary immune response

first exposure

• days to weeks for B and T cells to upregulate and mount full response

• after recovery, memory B and T cells will remain and circulate

Secondary immune response

second exposure

• memory cells respond faster

• either no sick or recover faster

Affinity vs Avidity, Cross reactivity

affinity is how strong a single bond is, avidity is the strength of all interactions

Cross reactivity is the being able ot react to multiple eptiopes

bad things immune system

• Chronic inflammation

• allergies

• autoimmunity

Immunodeficiency

primary- genetic/developmental defect results in lacking od some component of immune system

Acquired- later in life

Ecology

is the study of interactions of living organisms with their environment

Organismal ecology

Study adaptations that enable individuals in specific habitats

Population ecology

Focus on the number of interbreeding individuals in an area and how and why population size changes.

Community Ecology

Study the processes driving interactions between species, as well as their consequences.

Ecosystem Ecology

Study the storage and movement of nutrients and energy among organisms and the surrounding atmosphere, soil, and water

Biogeography

study of geographic distribution of living things and the abiotic factors

Abiotic factors

ex. temp, rainfall

vary based on latitude and elevation

as they change, communities change

Species distribution

endemic species: only found in specific geographic region

generalists : live in a bunch of places

Abiotic factor examples

Energy sources

• sunlight

• ocean upwelling

Temperature

Water

• freshwater

• saltwater

• frozen water

• seasonal water changes

Nutrients and inorganic materials

Ocrean upwelling

process that recycles nutrients and energy in the ocean

wind from offshore brings nutrients from bottom of ocean

Seasonal lake cahnges

spring and fall turnover move nutrients and oxygen at the bottom of lake to the top

water has max density at 4 C

Terrestrial biomes

each of worlds major biomes distinguished by characteristic temps and amounts of precipitation

Tropical wet forests

high net primary productivity because precipiation and temp is ideal for plants

high species diversities

Savannas

grasslands with scattered trees

24 C to 29 C 10-40 cm

extensive dry season

plants well developed root system

Subtropical deserts

Low and unpredictable precipitation limits vegetation and animal diversity

Chaparral

65-75 cm of rain, mostly in winter

summers dry plants dormant

dominated by shrubs

adapted to periodic fires

Temperate grasslands

seasonal temps

vegetation is very dense and soils are fertile because of roots and rhizomes

Temperate forests

-30 to 30 C 75-150 cm

deciduous trees are the dominant plant in this biome

net productivity lower than tropical

soil is rich

Boreal forest

cold dry winters

short cool wet summers

evergreens

net primary production is lower than most forests

Artic tundra

plants have short growing season

biome cold and dry

little species diveristy, net primary productivty, and above ground mass

Characteristics of aquatic biomes

zones based on water depth and distance from shore line