Foundations of Molecular Biology & Diagnostics

Sixty vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, structures, and processes from introductory molecular biology, biotechnology, genetics, cellular anatomy, and cell division topics.

Molecular Biology

Study of the molecular underpinnings of replication, transcription, and translation and how DNA, RNA, and proteins interact and are regulated.

Replication

Process by which DNA is copied before cell division, ensuring genetic information is passed to daughter cells.

Transcription

Synthesis of RNA from a DNA template, producing messenger RNA for protein coding or other functional RNAs.

Translation

Process in which ribosomes read mRNA codons to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide chain.

Molecular Diagnostics

Use of molecular‐based tests to detect and monitor disease by analyzing DNA, RNA, or proteins.

Molecular Biotechnology

Application of lab techniques to study and modify nucleic acids and proteins for health, agriculture, and environmental uses.

Bioinformatics

Interdisciplinary field that applies computer science to manage, analyze, and interpret biological data, especially sequence data.

Computational Biology

Use of mathematical and computational techniques to model biological systems and processes.

Human Genome Project

International effort that mapped and sequenced the entire human genome, opening avenues for new diagnostics and therapies.

Heredity

Transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring through reproduction.

Gene

Ultimate unit of inheritance; DNA segment that encodes functional RNA or protein.

Allele

One of two or more alternative forms of a gene occupying the same locus on homologous chromosomes.

Homozygous

Condition in which both alleles at a gene locus are identical.

Heterozygous

Condition in which two alleles at a gene locus differ; dominant allele is expressed.

Dominant

Allele whose trait is expressed in the phenotype even when only one copy is present.

Recessive

Allele whose trait is expressed only when two identical copies are present.

Genome

Entire complement of genetic material of an organism.

Genotype

Genetic constitution of an organism at one or multiple loci.

Phenotype

Observable characteristics produced by genotype interacting with environment.

Agriculture Genetics

Application of genetic principles to improve crop and livestock traits such as yield, growth rate, and disease resistance.

Transgenic Modification

Introduction of foreign DNA into an organism to confer new traits; common in crops and model organisms.

Recombinant DNA

DNA molecule created by joining DNA segments from different sources using enzymes like restriction endonucleases and ligases.

Artificial Insemination

Technique where sperm from selected males is introduced into females to propagate desirable genes.

Cloning

Producing genetically identical organisms or cells from a single ancestor, e.g., Dolly the sheep.

Gene Therapy

Treatment strategy that introduces functional genes to correct defective genotypes causing disease.

Genome Mining

Bioinformatics approach to search genomic data for genes of interest, often for drug target discovery.

Developmental Genetics

Study of how genes control growth and development from fertilized egg to adult organism.

Cell

Basic structural and functional unit of life; discovered by Robert Hooke via microscope observations of cork.

Prokaryotic Cell

Cell lacking membrane‐bound nucleus; includes bacteria and archaea with simpler internal organization.

Eukaryotic Cell

Cell with membrane‐bound nucleus and organelles; found in protists, fungi, plants, and animals.

Plasma Membrane

Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that encloses cytoplasm and regulates molecular traffic.

Cell Wall

Rigid extracellular layer in plants (cellulose) and many prokaryotes that provides protection and structural support.

Nucleus

Membrane‐bound organelle housing most cellular DNA and coordinating gene expression.

Ribosome

Ribonucleoprotein particle that synthesizes proteins; exists as free cytoplasmic or membrane‐bound forms.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Extensive membranous network involved in protein and lipid synthesis and intracellular transport.

Smooth ER

ER region lacking ribosomes; synthesizes lipids, detoxifies chemicals, and stores calcium ions.

Rough ER

ER region studded with ribosomes; synthesizes membrane and secretory proteins and expands membrane.

Golgi Apparatus

Stack of flattened sacs that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids from the ER for transport.

Lysosome

Membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that digest macromolecules and recycle cellular components.

Vacuole

Large vesicle for storage and digestion; central vacuole in plants maintains turgor and stores pigments or toxins.

Mitochondrion

Double‐membraned organelle where aerobic respiration generates ATP; inner membrane folded into cristae.

Chloroplast

Plant organelle with thylakoid membranes that capture light energy to drive photosynthesis.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein fibers providing structural support, intracellular transport, and cell motility.

Microfilament

Thin actin filament of cytoskeleton that supports cell shape and enables movement like muscle contraction.

Intermediate Filament

Stable cytoskeletal fiber providing tensile strength and anchoring organelles.

Microtubule

Hollow tubulin cylinder that shapes cells, guides organelle movement, and forms spindle fibers and cilia/flagella cores.

Cilia

Short, numerous microtubule‐based projections that move fluid or propel single‐celled eukaryotes.

Flagellum

Long, whip‐like microtubule structure (often 1–2 per cell) that propels cells such as sperm.

Plasmodesmata

Cytoplasmic channels through plant cell walls that connect adjacent cells for communication and transport.

Tight Junction

Animal cell junction where membranes fuse to prevent leakage of extracellular fluid between cells.

Anchoring Junction

Desmosome‐type linkage that fastens animal cells into strong sheets resistant to stretching.

Gap Junction

Protein‐lined channel connecting cytoplasm of adjacent animal cells, permitting ion and molecule flow.

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

Network of glycoproteins and polysaccharides outside animal cells that supports, protects, and anchors cells.

Peroxisome

Small oxidative organelle that degrades fatty acids and detoxifies substances, generating and breaking down H₂O₂.

Mitosis

Nuclear division in somatic cells producing two genetically identical daughter nuclei with the same chromosome number.

Meiosis

Two‐stage nuclear division in germ cells producing four genetically unique haploid gametes.

Crossing Over

Exchange of homologous chromosome segments during prophase I of meiosis, generating genetic recombination.

Synapsis

Pairing of homologous chromosomes during prophase I forming tetrads that facilitate crossing over.

Cytokinesis

Division of cytoplasm and organelles following nuclear division, producing separate daughter cells.