Chapter 18: Biopsychology of Psychiatric Disorders

Active placebos

substances that produce side effects similar to those of the active drug being tested, used to control for the psychological effects of believing one is receiving treatment.

Agoraphobia

a type of anxiety disorder characterized by an intense fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult, often leading to avoidance of public spaces.

Anxiety

a psychological condition marked by excessive worry, fear, and apprehension, often involving physical symptoms like rapid heartbeat and sweating.

Anxiety disorder

a group of mental health disorders characterized by significant and persistent feelings of anxiety, fear, or panic that interfere with daily activities.

anxiolytic drugs

medications that alleviate anxiety by acting on the central nervous system, often prescribed for anxiety disorders.

atypical antidepressants

a class of antidepressant medications that do not fit neatly into the traditional categories of serotonin reuptake inhibitors or tricyclics, often used to treat major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders.

Atypical antipsychotics

a class of medications used to manage psychosis, particularly in disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. They work by altering the effects of neurotransmitters in the brain.

bipolar disorder

a mental health condition characterized by significant mood swings, including emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression).

Bipolar disorder type I

is defined by manic episodes that last at least seven days or by manic symptoms that are so severe that immediate hospital care is needed. Depressive episodes often occur as well, typically lasting at least two weeks.

Bipolar disorder type II

is characterized by a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes, but not the full-blown manic episodes found in type I. The hypomanic episodes are less severe and shorter in duration.

Butyrophenones

are a class of antipsychotic medications used to treat mental health conditions, including schizophrenia and acute psychosis. They work by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain.

cheese effect

is a phenomenon associated with the use of certain antipsychotic medications, particularly butyrophenones, where patients experience a rapid return of psychotic symptoms if they consume certain foods, notably those containing high levels of tyramine.

chlorpromazine

is an antipsychotic medication of the phenothiazine class, primarily used to treat schizophrenia and severe behavioral problems. It works by modulating the effects of neurotransmitters in the brain, particularly dopamine.

clinical depression

is a mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest in activities, and various emotional and physical problems that can affect daily functioning.

clinical trials

studies conducted on human subjects to assess the therapeutic efficacy of an untested drug or other treatment

clozapine

is an antipsychotic medication used primarily for treatment-resistant schizophrenia. It works by blocking certain dopamine receptors and is also effective in reducing suicidal thoughts in patients with schizophrenia.

comorbid

referring to the presence of one or more additional disorders co-occurring with a primary disorder in a patient.

defensive-burying test

is a behavioral test used to assess anxiety and stress responses in animals, where they bury objects as a defensive mechanism.

DSM-5

is the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, which classifies and provides diagnostic criteria for mental health disorders.

elevated-plus-maze test

is a widely used experimental method for assessing anxiety in animals, consisting of a plus-shaped platform with two open arms and two enclosed arms, allowing researchers to observe avoidance behavior.

endogenous depression

is a type of depression that arises without an apparent external cause, often linked to biological factors such as neurotransmitter imbalances or genetic predisposition.

euthymic

describes a mental state characterized by a stable, normal mood and absence of significant depression or mania.

fluoxetine

is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) commonly prescribed to treat depression and anxiety disorders by increasing serotonin levels in the brain.

generalized anxiety disorder

is a mental health condition characterized by excessive, uncontrollable worry and anxiety about various aspects of daily life, often accompanied by physical symptoms such as restlessness or fatigue.

haloperidol

is an antipsychotic medication used primarily to treat schizophrenia and acute psychosis by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain.

Hypomania

is a mood state characterized by periods of elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, and hyperactivity, but to a lesser degree than full mania. It is often associated with bipolar disorder.

Imipramine

is a tricyclic antidepressant used to treat depression and anxiety disorders by affecting neurotransmitters in the brain, specifically serotonin and norepinephrine.

Iproniazid

is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) used primarily as an antidepressant. It works by preventing the breakdown of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine, thereby alleviating symptoms of depression.

ketamine

is a dissociative anesthetic that has gained attention for its rapid-acting antidepressant effects in treatment-resistant depression. It modulates glutamate activity in the brain, leading to increased synaptic connectivity.

Lithium

is a mood stabilizer commonly used to treat bipolar disorder. It helps to reduce the frequency and severity of manic and depressive episodes by influencing neurotransmitter systems in the brain.

lysergic acid diethylamide

(LSD) is a powerful hallucinogenic drug known for its ability to alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes. It primarily acts on serotonin receptors in the brain, leading to significant changes in sensory perception.

Mania

is a state characterized by elevated mood, increased energy, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior. It is often associated with bipolar disorder and can lead to significant impairment in functioning.

MAO inhibitors

are a class of antidepressant medications that work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which is responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, thereby increasing their levels in the brain.

mixed state

describes a condition where features of both mania and depression occur simultaneously, leading to unpredictable moods and behaviors. This state is often challenging to diagnose and treat.

mood stabilizers

are medications used to reduce mood swings and stabilize emotional states, particularly in conditions like bipolar disorder.

negative symptoms

refers to deficits or decreases in emotional expression, motivation, and social engagement commonly associated with schizophrenia, such as lack of pleasure in everyday activities.

orphan drugs

are medications developed specifically to treat rare diseases that may not be financially viable for pharmaceutical companies to produce.

panic attacks

are sudden episodes of intense fear or discomfort that reach a peak within minutes, often accompanied by physical symptoms such as heart palpitations, shortness of breath, and dizziness.

panic disorder

a mental health condition characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, often leading to significant anxiety about future attacks and avoidance of certain situations.

peripartum depression

a type of major depressive episode that occurs during pregnancy or within the first year after childbirth, affecting the mother's mood, behavior, and overall well-being.

phenothiazines

a class of antipsychotic medications used to treat schizophrenia and other severe mental health disorders by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain.

positive symptoms

Symptoms of schizophrenia that add to a person's behavior, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.

psychedelic drugs

substances that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes, often inducing visual and auditory hallucinations.

psychiatric disorder

A mental health condition characterized by alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior that impair daily functioning or well-being.

psychosis

a severe mental disorder characterized by a disconnection from reality, which may manifest as hallucinations or delusions.

reactive depression

A type of depression triggered by a specific external event or stressor, often leading to feelings of sadness or hopelessness.

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation

A non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, often used to treat depression when other treatments have failed.

reserpine

a medication that affects neurotransmitter levels in the brain, historically used to treat high blood pressure and sometimes prescribed for anxiety and certain psychiatric disorders.

risk-assessment test

A tool used to evaluate the likelihood of a person developing a psychiatric disorder or experiencing a specific adverse event based on various risk factors.

seasonal affective disorder

A type of depression that occurs at certain times of the year, typically in the winter months, characterized by changes in mood, sleep, and energy levels.

selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors

(SSRIs) are a class of antidepressant medications that increase serotonin levels in the brain by inhibiting its reabsorption in synapses, commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders.

specific phobia

An intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation that leads to avoidance behavior and significant distress.

tics

involuntary, repetitive movements or sounds, often associated with disorders such as Tourette syndrome.

tourette’s disorder

A neurological disorder characterized by multiple motor tics and one or more vocal tics that persist for more than a year.

translational bottleneck

The difficulty of translating basic research findings into effective treatments in clinical settings.

tricyclic antidepressants

A class of medications used primarily to treat depression by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and serotonin.

typical antipsychotics

are a class of medications used to manage psychosis, particularly in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain.

Up-regulation

The process by which a cell increases the quantity of a cellular component, such as proteins or neurotransmitter receptors, in response to an increase in the availability of certain signals or stimuli.