Key Concepts in Moral Philosophy: Ethics, Virtue, and Theories

David Foster Wallace

Modern moral essayist; argues awareness and choice define moral freedom ("This Is Water").

Jonathan Bennett

Shows that sympathy can correct bad morality ("The Conscience of Huckleberry Finn").

Simon Blackburn

Contemporary philosopher defending ethics against skepticism ("Seven Threats to Ethics").

Benjamin Franklin

Early American thinker; virtue through self-discipline and habit ("Plan for Attaining Moral Perfection").

Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher; happiness = rational activity in accord with virtue (Virtue Ethics).

Immanuel Kant

18th-century philosopher; morality from duty and the categorical imperative (Deontology).

Jeremy Bentham

Founder of utilitarianism; right actions maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

John Stuart Mill

Revised utilitarianism to include quality of pleasure and justice.

Carolyn Collins

Explains modern Care Ethics—morality rooted in empathy and relationships.

David Morrow

Teaches moral reasoning and argument structure (how to analyze ethical claims).

Jonathan Edwards

Puritan theologian; represents Divine Command Theory (morality depends on God's will).

Heinrich Himmler

Nazi officer used as example of "false duty"; illustrates dangers of blind obedience.

Huckleberry Finn

Literary case of sympathy vs moral law; shows conscience guided by compassion.

Robert Nozick

Philosopher who proposed the "Experience Machine" thought experiment.

Friedrich Nietzsche

Declared "God is dead"; questioned traditional moral authority.

Plato (Euthyphro)

Introduced the Euthyphro Dilemma; basis of Divine Command debate.

Carol Gilligan / Virginia Held

Founders of modern Care Ethics; emphasize relationships and context.

Confucius

Chinese philosopher; harmony, community, and moral cultivation through ritual and empathy.

Ubuntu Thinkers

African moral tradition valuing human interdependence ("I am because we are").

Philosophy

The love of wisdom; disciplined inquiry into fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, and value.

Ethics / Moral Philosophy

Branch of philosophy studying right and wrong action, good and bad character.

Argument

A group of statements where premises support a conclusion.

Valid

An argument whose conclusion follows logically from its premises.

Sound

A valid argument with all true premises.

Metaethics

Examines the meaning and justification of moral terms and judgments.

Normative Ethical Theory

Explains which actions are right or wrong and why.

Applied Ethics

Applies moral theories to real-world cases like euthanasia or abortion.

Conscience

Inner faculty for moral awareness guiding right and wrong.

Sympathy

Emotional responsiveness that can motivate moral behavior.

Bad Morality

When one's moral code is corrupted by social norms or ideology.

Moral Claim

Statement asserting something is morally right or wrong.

Deontic Claim

Judgment about what one ought or ought not do (duty).

Axiological Claim

Judgment about what is good or valuable (worth).

Normative Claim

Prescriptive statement expressing how things should be.

Ethical Environment

The network of cultural, social, and psychological influences shaping moral life.

Ethical Animals

Blackburn's view that humans are naturally moral creatures evolved for cooperation.

Death of God

Nietzsche's idea that loss of religious grounding challenges moral authority.

Euthyphro Dilemma

"Is what's good commanded by God, or does God command it because it's good?"—problem for Divine Command Theory.

Relativism

Morality depends on culture or perspective; no absolute standard.

Cultural Relativism

Moral rightness determined by local customs and practices.

Universal Standard

Objective measure of morality applying across cultures.

Psychological Egoism

Descriptive claim that humans always act from self-interest.

Ethical Egoism

Normative claim that one ought to act in self-interest.

Altruism

Acting for the benefit of others, even at personal cost.

Aristotle's Method

Start from common opinions (doxa), examine critically, refine to discover the truth.

Instrumental Value

Valued as a means to another end.

Intrinsic Value

Valued for its own sake.

Chief Good

Ultimate end of action—eudaimonia (flourishing).

Virtue

Excellence of character achieved by habit and guided by reason.

Doctrine of the Mean

Virtue lies between extremes of excess and deficiency.

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)

Ability to deliberate rightly about how to act virtuously.

Eudaimonia vs Pleasure

Happiness as rational flourishing vs momentary enjoyment.

Experience Machine

Nozick's argument that pleasure alone cannot equal true happiness.

Habit (Ethos)

Repetition of right actions forming stable character.

Good Will (Kant)

Only thing good without qualification—acting from duty.

Duty vs Inclination

Moral worth arises from duty, not desire.

Categorical Imperative

Universal moral law: act only on maxims you can will for everyone.

Formula of Universal Law

Kant's test for universalizability—contradictions show immorality.

Acting from Duty

Doing right because it is right, not for gain or emotion.

Respect for Moral Law

Motivation grounded in reason and autonomy.

Autonomy

Self-legislation of the rational will; true freedom in Kant's ethics.

Moral Worth (Kant)

Determined by intention from duty, not results.

Objections to Deontology

Conflicts of duty, rigidity, limited scope, paradoxical outcomes.

Golden Rule vs Categorical Imperative

GR = empathy-based; CI = reason-based universal law.

Utilitarianism

Consequentialist theory judging actions by overall happiness produced.

Principle of Utility

Greatest Happiness Principle: maximize pleasure, minimize pain.

Hedonic Calculus (Bentham)

System to measure intensity, duration, certainty of pleasure/pain.

Higher and Lower Pleasures (Mill)

Intellectual pleasures are superior in quality to bodily ones.

Competent Judges

Those who've experienced both kinds of pleasure prefer higher ones.

Impartiality (Mill)

Everyone's happiness counts equally.

Rights and Justice (Mill)

Justice protects rules vital to long-term happiness.

Integrity Objection

Utilitarianism may force betrayal of personal values.

Demandingness Objection

Requires too much sacrifice for the greater good.

Rule vs Act Utilitarianism

Rule = follow general rules maximizing happiness; Act = judge each case by consequences.

Care Ethics (Collins)

Morality arises from caring relationships and emotional responsiveness.

Caring for vs Caring about

Practical caregiving vs general empathy; both morally important.

Personal Relationships

Central to moral life in care ethics; contrast with abstract rules.

Confucian Ethics / Ubuntu

Non-Western traditions emphasizing harmony, community, and relational virtue.

Skepticism about Principles (Care Ethics)

Universal rules may ignore context and emotion.

Caring Attitudes and Actions

Genuine moral care involves both feeling and doing.

Constellation View

Ethical theories interrelate: Virtue → Character; Deontology → Duty; Utilitarianism → Consequence; Care Ethics → Relationships.