Psychology 1&2 Semester 1

Aim

A statement outlining the purpose of the investigation.

Research Hypothesis

A testable prediction of the relationship between two or more variables

Controlled experiment

An experimental investigation to test the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable, whilst controlling all other variables.

Variable

Something that can vary in amount or type and is measurable.

Controlled variable

One that is considered to have an effect on the dependent variable in an experiment so it needs to be held constant to remove its potential effects

Independent variable

The variable for which quantities are manipulated by the researcher, and is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The variable the researcher measures in an experiment for changes it may experience due to the effect of the independent variable

Operationalising variables

Specifying exactly how the variables will be manipulated or measured in a particular controlled experiment

Correlational study

Used to investigate the relationship that exists between variables without any control over the setting in which the relationship occurs or any manipulation by the researcher.

Population

The entire group of research interest from which a sample is drawn and to which the researcher will seek to generalise the results of their investigation

Sample

A subset or part of the population that is selected for research purposes.

Sampling

The process by which a subset or part of the population is selected for an investigation.

Random sampling

A sampling technique that ensures every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected to be part of the sample.

Stratified sampling

The process of selecting a sample from a population comprised of various subgroups in such a way that each subgroup is represented.

Convenience sampling

Selecting a sample of individuals who are readily available

List the types of research methods

Experimental methods, correlational methods, and descriptive methods

What do experimental methods do?

Investigate what causes an outcome

What do correlational methods do?

Measure relationship between variables.

What do descriptive methods do?

Describe what is occurring

List the types of descriptive methods

Observational studies, self reports, case studies.

List the experimental research methods

Laboratory experiments, field experiments

List the non-experimental research methods

Case studies, observational studies, questionnaires, interviews, correlational studies, simulation studies.

Self report

A participant’s answers to questions presented by the researcher

Observational study

Collection of data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs without any intervention or manipulation of the behaviour being observed.

Case study

An intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour, activity, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation. In psychology, the case that is the subject of study is usually a person.

Advantages of convenience sampling

The most cost and time effective.

Disadvantages of convenience sampling

The most likely to produce an unrepresentative sample, thereby making it harder for researchers to generalise results to the population.

Advantages of random sampling

Can be more representative that convenience sampling, reduces experimenter bias, and can make a fairly representative sample when the sample size is large enough.

Cross-sectional method

A type of observational research method used to analyse data from a population at a specific point in time.

Longitudinal study

A research method that involves repeated observations of the same individuals over a long period of time

Disadvantages of random sampling

May be time consuming, may not create a representative sample if the sample is small.

Advantages of stratified sampling

The most likely to produce a representative sample.

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

Can be time consuming and expensive, and can be demeaning on the researcher to select the most appropriate strata to account for.

Extraneous variable

A variable other than the IV that may cause a change in the DV and therefore may affect the results.

Confounding variable

A variable other than the IV that has had an effect on the DV which cannot be separated from that of the IV.

What are the 7 ethical guidelines?

Debriefing, voluntary participation, informed consent, deception, withdrawal rights, confidentiality, no lasting harm.

What is the acronym for the 7 ethical principles?

Dogs volunteer information depending who can no.

Beneficence

The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action.

Integrity

The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.

Justice

The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action.

Non-maleficence

Involves avoiding the causations of harm.

Respect

Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and instrumental value, giving due regard to the rights and welfare of the subjects and to ensure they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary.

Confidentiality

The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity in individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.

Debriefing

Ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions.

Informed consent procedures

Ensure that participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risk, before agreeing to participate in the study.

Use of deception in research

Is only permissible when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour whilst participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment.

Voluntary participation

Ensures that no coercion or pressure is put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved.

Withdrawal rights

Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty.

Reliability

The extent to which a measure produces results that are consistent, dependable and stable.

Validity

The extent to which a measure accurately measures what it is supposed to be measuring. Validity means that the results represent true findings among similar individuals in the population from which the sample was drawn.

Internal validity

The extent to which an investigation actually investigated what it set out to investigate and/or claims to have investigated

External validity

The extent to which the results obtained for a study can be applied beyond the sample that generated them, specifically to individuals in a different setting and over time.

Generalisation

A decision about how widely the results of an investigation can be applied, particularly to other members of the population from which the sample was drawn.

Development

changes in an organism that occur over time.

Developmental change

A change that is relatively permanent or lasting.

What does the study of life span development cover?

both relatively permanent changes, as well as changes which differ between individuals.

relatively permanent changes are…

common to all individuals

what does emotional development involve

changes in how an individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are expressed, interpreted and dealt with

emotional development example

the way in which anger is expressed by a 2-year-old, compared with a 16-year-old or an 80-year-old person.

what does cognitive development involve

changes in an individual’s mental abilities, such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, perception, learning, memory and use of language.

what does social development involve

changes in an individual’s relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others, such as the ability to form and maintain close relationships with others in a group situation.

what does physical development involve

changes in the body and its various systems, such as development of the brain and its nervous system, bones and muscles, motor skills, and the hormonal changes of puberty and menopause.

what are the stages of life span development

infancy: birth–2 years, childhood: 2–12 years, adolescence: 12–20 years, early adulthood: 20–40 years, middle age: 40–65 years, older age: 65 years and beyond.

Developmental norm

a data set showing the typical skills and expected levels of achievement associated with a particular age or stage of development

What do developmental norms provide

a way of comparing an individual’s development with that of others in the same age group.

Comparison

Comparison can give information on the progress of development in relation to what is ‘the average’ or ‘typical’ for people in an age group. 

Hereditary

the transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring via genes at the time of conception.

Environment

all experiences, objects and events to which we are exposed throughout our entire lifetime.

What did many of the early psychologist believe in?

either the hereditary or the environmental view of development.

What does our individual development begin with?

with the genetic instructions instructions we inherit at conception and that these instructions provide the building blocks, or ‘blueprint’, for the development of our psychological (and physical) characteristics.

The environment interacts with our…

inherited potential to determine how the genetic plan unfolds

the biopsychosocial model 

an approach to describing and explaining psychological development and wellbeing through the interaction of biological, psychological and social factors.

Psychological factors include:

Effects of prior experience, learning, memory, ways of thinking, attitude, beliefs, perception, emotions, resilience and coping skills.

Social factors include

Interpersonal relationships, access to social support, social media, education background, employment history, economic circumstances, access to healthcare, social stressors, ethnicity, cultural values and traditions.

Biological factors include

Genes, age, sex, race, brain chemistry, nervous system activity, hormones, disease, sleep patterns and bodily responses to stress.

Biological factors involve

physiologically based or determined influences, often not under our control

Psychological factors involve

all those internal, mental processes and influences

Social factors involve

influences from the external social environment in which we interact with others

The biopsychosocial model reflects…

a holistic view of development and wellbeing. The individual is considered as a ‘whole person’ functioning in their unique environment.

What does the biopsychosocial model recognise?

that development is not only the result of internal factors but is also greatly influenced by external factors such as their physical surroundings, social interactions and cultural exposure.

Emotion

a complex reaction pattern to a personally significant event or matter that involves a mixture of physiological responses, subjective feelings and expressive behaviour

Subjective feeling

The inner, personal experience of an emotion

Expressive behavior

The many overt expressions of behaviour which communicate emotions. an outward sign that an emotion is being experienced, and such behaviour can be either intentional or unintentional

Physiological responses

Occur when we experience an emotion involving changes such as heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate and perspiration.

attachment

the emotional bond which forms between an infant and another person.

The strange situation

a standardised test for measuring the attachment relationship a child has with their parent.

Who made the strange situation

Mary Ainsworth

What happens in the strange situation

The infant and caregiver are taken into an unfamiliar room containing some age-appropriate toys. Then the infant is exposed to a series of separations and reunions involving the caregiver, the infant and a stranger.

Stranger anxiety

the distress and uneasiness experienced by young children when they are around people who are unfamiliar to them.

Separation anxiety

the distress and uneasiness when away from the person or people to whom they are attached.

What does an infant who has formed a secure attachment show?

a balance between dependence and exploration.

what shows you that the infant has as secure attachment

The infant uses the caregiver as a ‘home’, or safe base from which to venture out and explore an unfamiliar environment, but shows some distress and decreases exploration when the caregiver departs. When the caregiver returns, the infant is enthusiastic and seeks physical contact with them.

What does an infant with insecure avoidant attachment do?

does not seek closeness or contact with the caregiver and treats them much like a stranger.

How does the infant with insecure avoidant attachment respond?

The infant rarely cries when the caregiver leaves the room and ignores the caregiver upon their return.

What do research findings suggest about infants with insecure avoidant attachment?

this attachment type may be the result of neglectful or abusive caregivers

What does the infant do in insecure resistant attachment?

appears anxious even when their caregiver is near. They become very upset when separated from the caregiver.

How does the infant with insecure resistant attachment respond?

When the caregiver returns, the infant approaches them, cries to be picked up, then squirms or fights to get free, as though it is not sure about what it really wants.

What is insecure resistant attachment a result of?

from caregivers who are not very responsive to their infant’s needs.

Who identified disorganised attachment?

Mary Main and Judith Solomon

What is disorganised attachment

A form of insecure attachment in which infants show inconsistent or odd and contradictory behaviours during separation from and reunion with their caregivers.