Development and Learning 3.7-3.9

behavioral perspective

examines how observable behaviors are learned & reinforced through interactions with the environment

associative learning

process of learning in which an individual forms connections between events that occur together

classical conditioning

a learning method where we associate 2 stimuli, enabling us to anticipate events

unconditional stimulus

stimulus that naturally & automatically triggers a response w/o any learning needed

unconditional response

natural & automatic reaction to a stimulus that occurs w/o any prior learning or conditioning

conditioned stimulus

previously neutral stimulus that, after beating repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, evokes a conditioned response

conditioned response

learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented, resulting from the association with an unconditioned stimulus

acquisition

the initial learning of an association

extinction

the process in which the conditioned response weakens & eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, suggesting that extinction doesn’t erase the association but suppresses it temporarily

stimulus discrimination

ability to differentiate between similar stimuli & respond differently to them, learned through the conditioning process

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, as a result of the conditioning process

higher-order conditioning

process where a previously conditioned stimulus is used to create further association with new neutral stimuli, resulting in those stimuli also eliciting a conditioned response

counterconditioning

changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with a different experience

taste aversion

learned association between the taste of a particular food & feeling sick, often occurring after only one pairing

biological preparedness

the innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli & responses that are relevant to their survival, such as food & danger

operant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment

the law of effect

behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated

reinforcement

“repeat” any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future

primary reinforcers

things we naturally like, such as food or water

secondary reinforcers

things we learn to like because they’re connected to primary reinforcers or other things we like

reinforcement discrimination

ability to distinguish between different stimuli & respond appropriate based on the presence of absence of reinforcement

reinforcement generalization

tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement

positive reinforcement

presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

negative reinforcement

removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

punishment

“prevent” any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future

positive punishment

adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

negative punishment

removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

shaping

gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer & closer to the desired behavior, leading to the development of a complex behavior or skill

instinctive drift

animals may go back to their natural insticts instead of learning new behaviors through training (operant conditioning)

superstitous behavior

accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing outcomes, even when they are not

reinforcement schedules

patterns determining when & how often reinforcement is given for a behavior, influencing the rate & persistence of that behavior

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a behavior only some of the time it occurs, leading to slower extinction but also less consistent responding

fixed interval (FI)

reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a predictable pattern of behavior

variable interval (VI)

reinforcement is delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a steady but moderate rate of responding

fixed ratio (FR)

reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with short pauses after each reinforcement

variable ratio (VR)

reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high & steady rate of responding with minimal pauses

learned helplessness

belief that one has no control over their circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events, leading to feelings of passivity & lack of effort to change the situation

social learning theory

theory that emphasizes the importance of observing, imitating, & modeling behaviors, as well as cognitive processes, in learning from others within social contexts

modeling

learning by observing & imitating the behaviors of others

vicarious conditioning

learning by observing the consequences of others’ actions, without directly experiencing those consequences oneself

insight learning

a sudden understanding of a problem or situation that leads to a solution without prior trial & error; often accompanied by a feeling of ‘aha’ or realization

latent (hidden) learning

learning that occurs without any abvious reinforcement or motivation, but sin’t demonstrated until there is a reason to do so

cognitive maps

mental representations of spatial relationships or layouts, allowing individuals to navigate & understand their environment