Voting Rights and Political Participation in the U.S.

15th Amendment

Prohibited voting discrimination based on race. Gave African American men the right to vote (though often obstructed through other means).

17th Amendment

Established the direct election of U.S. Senators, increasing democratic participation.

19th Amendment

Gave women the right to vote, doubling the potential electorate.

24th Amendment

Prohibited poll taxes, removing a financial barrier to voting.

26th Amendment

Lowered the voting age to 18, tied to the argument: 'Old enough to fight, old enough to vote.'

Retrospective Voting

Voting based on the past performance of a candidate or party (e.g., voting against incumbents in bad economies).

Prospective Voting

Voting based on predictions of how a candidate will perform in the future.

Party-Line Voting

Voting strictly for candidates of one's political party.

Political Efficacy

Belief that one's political participation makes a difference. Higher efficacy = more likely to vote.

Voting Incentives or Penalties

Incentives (like tax breaks) or penalties (like fines in Australia) can increase turnout.

Presidential vs. Midterm Elections

Presidential elections have higher turnout due to greater visibility and media attention.

Party Identification

Most reliable predictor of vote choice—people tend to vote for their party.

Ideological Orientation

People vote for candidates that match their views on issues like government size, taxes, etc.

Candidate Characteristics

Voters may be influenced by personality, experience, honesty, and charisma.

Contemporary Political Issues

Events like inflation, war, or crime can dominate voter concerns.

Demographics (Race, Gender, Religion)

These can correlate with voting behavior (e.g., women lean Democrat, white evangelical Christians often vote Republican).

Political Parties

Recruit candidates, organize elections, and connect voters to government.

Interest Groups

Advocate for policies and influence legislators (e.g., NRA, ACLU).

Elections

Allow citizens to express preferences and select representatives.

Media

Informs the public, sets the agenda, and acts as a watchdog.

Mobilizing Voters

Encouraging people to vote through outreach and campaigning.

Nominating Candidates

Choosing individuals to represent the party in elections.

Educating the Electorate

Informing voters about policy issues and platforms.

Party Platforms

Official stances on issues, guiding principles for legislation and campaigns.

Organizing Government

Helping coordinate legislative and executive action around shared goals.

Candidate-Centered Campaigns

Focus on the individual candidate, often bypassing the party organization.

Regional Realignments

Major shifts in party support (e.g., Southern states becoming Republican).

Campaign Finance Laws

Have weakened party fundraising and encouraged outside spending.

Technology & Data Management

Allow microtargeting of voters, reducing party control over campaigns.

Citizens United v. FEC

Allowed unlimited independent spending by corporations and unions in elections; money = speech.

Buckley v. Valeo

Upheld limits on others' contributions; struck down limits on a candidate's own campaign spending.

BCRA (McCain-Feingold Act)

Banned soft money and regulated issue ads; parts later struck down.

Open Primary

Any registered voter can vote in either party's primary.

Closed Primary

Only registered party members can vote in their party's primary.

Caucus

Public meetings where voters discuss and choose candidates.

Party Convention

Event where delegates formally nominate a candidate for president.

General Election

Election to choose the final officeholder among party nominees.

Electoral College

System where electors vote for president based on state results, often winner-take-all.

Electoral College & Democracy Debate

Critics say it may not reflect the popular vote; supporters argue it protects smaller states' influence.

PAC

Political Action Committee—raises money (with limits) and donates directly to candidates.

Super PAC

Can raise and spend unlimited money independently of candidates.

501(c) Group

Nonprofits that can engage in politics without disclosing donors ('dark money').

Horse Race Journalism

Media focuses on polling and competition, not issues or qualifications.

Media as Linkage Institution

Connects citizens to government by providing news and acting as a watchdog.

Media Fragmentation

More media options can create echo chambers and reduce shared political understanding.

Interest Groups

Shape policy through lobbying, donations, and testifying in Congress.

Iron Triangle

Mutual relationship between interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies.

Free Rider Problem

People benefit from interest group actions without joining or contributing.

Resource Inequality

Groups with more money and members can exert greater political influence.