BIO211 HUMAN A&P EXAM 1 OUTLINE

Directional terms: distal, lateral, proximal, medial, superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, deep, superficial • Body systems / organs • Body cavities / quadrants • Anatomical position: purpose, definition • Body planes • Homeostasis: positive vs negative feedback loops • Mechanisms of homeostasis • Structural organization of the human body (the “triangle”) • Cells: structures and functions • Osmosis vs diffusion and examples • Tissues (especially epithelial): types, locations, characteristics, functions • Integument: structures, layers, accessory structures

Distal

Farther from the point of attachment or origin.

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body.

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment or origin.

Medial

Toward the midline of the body.

Superior

Above or higher in position.

Inferior

Below or lower in position.

Anterior

Toward the front of the body.

Posterior

Toward the back of the body.

Deep

Away from the surface of the body.

Superficial

Toward or on the surface of the body.

Integumentary System

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands.

Respiratory System

Lungs, trachea, bronchi, diaphragm.

Cardiovascular System

Heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries).

Nervous System

Brain, spinal cord, nerves.

Endocrine System

Glands (e.g., pituitary, thyroid, adrenal), pancreas, ovaries, testes.

Renal (Urinary) System

Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.

Immune System

Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, spleen, thymus, bone marrow.

Gastrointestinal (GI) System

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder.

Reproductive System

Testes, prostate, penis in males; Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina in females.

Musculoskeletal System

Bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments.

Dorsal Body Cavity

Contains the brain and spinal cord.

Cranial Cavity

Contains the brain.

Spinal (Vertebral) Cavity

Contains the spinal cord.

Ventral Body Cavity

Contains organs like the heart and lungs.

Thoracic Cavity

Contains the heart and lungs.

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities.

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Contains the liver, gallbladder, right kidney.

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Contains the stomach, spleen, left kidney.

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

Contains the appendix, portions of intestines.

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Contains portions of intestines, left ovary.

Anatomical Position

Standard reference posture: standing upright, facing forward, arms at the sides palms facing forward

Sagittal Plane

Divides the body into left and right parts.

Frontal (Coronal) Plane

Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

Transverse Plane

Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.

Positive Feedback Loop

Enhances or amplifies changes in the body (e.g., childbirth).

Negative Feedback Loop

Counteracts changes to maintain stability in the body (e.g., temperature regulation).

Feedback Mechanisms

Processes that help maintain homeostasis through positive and negative feedback.

Chemical Level

Simplest level of organization involving atoms and molecules.

Cellular Level

Basic unit of life; made of molecules.

Tissue Level

Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

Organ Level

Structures composed of different tissues working together.

Organ System Level

Groups of organs that perform related functions.

Organismal Level

Complete living being, all organ systems combined.

Cell Membrane

Protects the cell and controls what enters and leaves.

Nucleus

Contains genetic material and controls cellular activities.

Mitochondria

Produces energy (ATP) for the cell.

Ribosomes

Synthesize proteins by translating mRNA.

Epithelial Tissue

Covers surfaces and lines cavities; responsible for protection, absorption, and secretion.

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Single layer of flat cells, allows diffusion and filtration.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Single layer of cube-shaped cells, functions in secretion and absorption.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Single layer of tall cells, often with microvilli, functions in absorption and secretion.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Single layer that appears stratified, functions in secretion and movement of mucus.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Multiple layers of flat cells, protects against abrasion.

Transitional Epithelium

Multiple layers that can stretch, found in urinary bladder.

Exocrine Glands

Secrete substances onto body surfaces or into cavities.

Endocrine Glands

Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Integumentary System

Skin, hair, nails, and associated glands.

Epidermis

Outermost layer of skin made of stratified squamous epithelial cells.

Dermis

Middle layer of skin made of dense connective tissue.

Hypodermis

Deepest layer of skin, composed of loose connective and adipose tissue.

Nail Structure

Includes nail plate, bed, cuticle, matrix, and lunula.

Sweat Glands

Eccrine and apocrine glands, help regulate body temperature.

Sebaceous Glands

Secrete sebum to lubricate the skin and hair.

Homeostasis

Process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment.

Osmosis

Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from low to high solute concentration.

Diffusion

Movement of particles from high to low concentration.

Perfume Example

Diffusion occurs when perfume molecules spread in air.

Cell Membrane Transport

Process of regulating substances entering and exiting cells.

Cellular Respiration

Process by which cells produce ATP from nutrients.

Regeneration of Epithelial Tissue

High capacity for regeneration due to frequent cell division.

Protection (Epithelial Function)

Shields underlying tissues from mechanical and chemical damage.