POLS 1200 Midterm 1 - Definitions

Agenda Control

The authority to set the options available to a group and determine which choices or bills are put up for a vote.

Articles of Confederation

The first national constitution of the U.S., creating a weak central government that lacked taxing authority and executive enforcement.

Bargaining

A negotiation process where political actors trade concessions and modify positions to reach a mutually agreeable policy outcome.

Cabinet

An advisory council to the President composed of the heads of the 15 executive departments and other chosen officials.

Cloture

A Senate procedural rule (Rule 22) requiring a 3/5 supermajority (60 votes) to end a filibuster and limit debate.

Collective Action

The effort of a group to achieve a shared goal, often complicated by conflicting individual incentives.

Collective Good

A public benefit or service provided to all members of a society that cannot be withheld from non-contributors.

Commerce Clause

Article I, Section 8 clause granting Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states.

Conformity Costs

The difference between an individual's ideal preference and the collective decision made by the group.

Coordination

The act of organizing joint actions among individuals or groups who share a common goal but disagree on how to achieve it.

Delegation

The act of authorizing an agent or agency to make decisions and execute policies on behalf of a principal.

Divided Government

A political condition where one political party controls the presidency while the opposing party controls one or both houses of Congress.

Electoral College

The constitutional body of electors chosen by states that officially casts the votes to elect the President and Vice President.

Federalists/Anti-Federalists

Federalists favored a strong national government and ratification of the Constitution; Anti-Federalists favored state sovereignty and individual rights protections.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic used by a minority of senators to delay or prevent a vote on a bill through extended debate or procedural holds.

Free-rider Problem

A market/collective failure where individuals benefit from a collective good without contributing to its provision or cost.

Gerrymandering

The drawing of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party or demographic group over another.

Going Public

A presidential strategy of appealing directly to the general public to mobilize popular pressure on Congress.

House of Representatives

The lower chamber of Congress with 435 members apportioned by state population, serving two-year terms.

Incumbency Advantage

The electoral edge held by current officeholders over challengers due to name recognition, franking, and fundraising networks.

Great Compromise

The Constitutional Convention agreement establishing a bicameral legislature with population-based House seats and equal Senate representation.

Home Rule

Power delegated by a state government to local units (cities/counties) to govern their own administrative affairs.

Honeymoon

The early period of a presidential administration marked by high public approval ratings and congressional cooperation.

Institutionalized Presidency

The modern, complex presidential administration featuring dedicated support structures within the Executive Office of the President.

Judicial Review

The Supreme Court's power to declare acts of Congress, executive actions, or state laws unconstitutional (established in Marbury v. Madison).

Line-item Veto

The executive authority to reject specific spending lines in a bill while signing the remainder into law (declared unconstitutional for the US President).

Logroll

A legislative arrangement where members trade votes, agreeing to support each other's favored bills or amendments.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Article I, Section 8 clause granting Congress authority to pass all laws needed to execute its enumerated powers (the Elastic Clause).

New Jersey Plan

A Constitutional Convention proposal advocating for a unicameral legislature where every state received equal representation.

Plurality

An electoral outcome where a candidate receives more votes than any other candidate, but not necessarily an absolute majority.

Proportional Representation

An electoral system in which political parties gain legislative seats in direct proportion to the percentage of total votes cast for them.

Pocket Veto

A passive presidential veto occurring when a bill remains unsigned for 10 days while Congress is adjourned.

Polarization

The ideological divergence between political parties, drawing members toward extreme ends of the spectrum and reducing middle-ground consensus.

Prisoner's Dilemma

A game theory framework showing why two rational actors might refuse to cooperate, even when cooperation yields the best joint outcome.

Private Goods

Benefits or products that are both excludable (access can be limited) and rivalrous (one person's consumption reduces availability to others).

Public Goods

Benefits or products that are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, available to everyone regardless of contribution.

Representative Government

A political framework where citizens elect delegates to formulate policies and execute laws on their behalf.

Separation of Powers/Checks

The constitutional distribution of government powers across distinct branches, each possessing structural mechanisms to limit the others.

Senate

The upper chamber of Congress consisting of two senators per state serving six-year staggered terms.

Executive Agreements

International agreements made by the President with foreign leaders that hold the force of treaties without requiring 2/3 Senate ratification.

Shays' Rebellion

An armed 1786 uprising of Massachusetts farmers against debt collection that exposed the military and financial weakness of the Articles of Confederation.

Super Majority

A voting threshold requiring significantly more than a simple 50%+1 majority (e.g., 3/5 or 2/3) to pass a measure.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI provision establishing that federal law and the Constitution take precedent over conflicting state laws.

Take Care Clause

Article II clause mandating that the President "take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed."

Tenth Amendment

The Constitutional amendment reserving powers not explicitly granted to the federal government to the states or the people.

Tragedy of the Commons

A scenario where individuals acting independently in self-interest deplete or spoil a shared, unmanaged public resource.

Transaction Costs

The time, effort, and resources required to negotiate, organize, and execute a collective decision.

Unitary Government

A political system in which ultimate constitutional authority resides in a centralized national government.

Veto

The constitutional right of an executive to formally reject a bill passed by the legislature.

Virginia Plan

A Constitutional Convention proposal advocating for a bicameral legislature based on state population size.

War Powers Act

A 1973 federal law requiring the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of military deployment and limit forces to 60 days without authorization.

Types of Committees

Specialized legislative bodies in Congress, including Standing (permanent), Select (investigative), Joint (informational), and Conference (reconciling bills).

Types of Grants

Federal funds distributed to lower governments, primarily Categorical Grants (strict federal mandates) and Block Grants (broad state discretion).

Congressional Rules

Procedural guidelines governing chamber operations, such as the House Rules Committee determining debate lengths and amendment terms.

Carrot and Stick

A policy strategy pairing rewards/incentives (carrots) with punishments/penalties (sticks) to guide state or individual behavior.

Alexander Hamilton

A prominent Federalist key to establishing early American economic policy, strong executive authority, and the National Bank.

Federal System

A constitutional arrangement dividing sovereign governing power between a central national authority and regional state governments.

Second Amendment/Incorporation

The constitutional right to bear arms, applied to state and local governments through 14th Amendment selective incorporation (McDonald v. Chicago).

Enumerated Powers

The specific list of legislative powers explicitly granted to Congress under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution.