period 7 kco + extra review

model T cars

model T cars

Model T cars were a new, widely popular consumer good that gave the American public a newfound sense of freedom in mobility. In fact, by 1932, the U.S. owned around 80% of the world’s cars - 1 for every 6 people. “Sunday drives” and taking vacations by car became normalized and led to the opening of gas stations, motels, and drive-in restaurants. The ownership of a car became essential for the middle class, and many purchased them on consumer credit - a new concept in and of itself.

assembly lines

Henry Ford’s assembly lines focused on production efficiency, which led to their products (such as the Model T) being more affordable. Ford also set a precedent of paying living wages for all (regardless of race) and standardized the 8-hour workday. However, Ford did not allow unionization, and the boring/repetitive nature of the work led to a high turnover rate.

flappers

New opportunities for women to earn incomes in 1920s urban areas (after the war) led to the rise of the “flapper” as well as new advertising campaigns targeted towards these women for makeup, clothes, cigarettes, and so on. Many were shocked by the flapper lifestyle, which they viewed as immoral and even dangerous. Women’s employment during WW1 gave them a chance at social, political, economic, and sexual freedom. Flappers were depicted in literature (F. Scott Fitzgerald) as well as film (Clara Bow + “Gentlemen Prefer Blondes”). However, this trend essentially died out with the Great Depression as many could no longer afford the frivolities associated with that flapper lifestyle.

welfare capitalism

Welfare capitalism drew many workers to urban areas as companies began offering benefits such as paid vacations and shortened work weeks - even without mandates from the government. One good example of this was Ford Motor Company, which mixed traditional free market principles with practices from a welfare state (foreshadowing various New Deal programs). Another good example was when Corning Glass Works began providing health insurance to its workers in 1923.

Great Depression

The Great Depression was one of the most notable episodes of economic downturn in American history and led to voting for more regulatory economic policies. It began when the stock market crashed in a series of plunges between October 25th and November 13th, 1929. Many people, businesses, and banks had invested spare cash in the stock market, so this had a nationwide effect. Many banks failed, and since the government did not insure bank deposits, many people lost everything. The unemployment rate skyrocketed to 24% by 1932, and it mainly affected the lower classes. Fittingly, the subsequent election of 1932 saw Americans reject antiregulatory business policies that had contributed to the Depression.

Herbert Hoover

President Hoover’s attachment to the idea of limited government caused him to make questionable decisions regarding economic policy during downturn, and many called for a new approach or new president. Initially, he called for Americans to “settle in and work harder” to overcome the Depression, but even when he did secure $700 million for public works (1931) and established the RFC to provide federal loans to businesses, these efforts were still far too cautious and did not ultimately help much. He also kept tariffs such as the Smoot-Hawley Tariff despite advice from economic experts, and this led to retaliatory tariffs from other countries, further enhancing the global effects of the Depression.

National Child Labor Committee

Formed in 1907, the National Child Labor Committee was a major leading organization in the predominantly Progressive movement for child labor reform. It aimed to abolish child labor as well as establish a precedent of free and compulsory education for all youth. The Children’s Bureau was established in the U.S. Labor Department, and a Constitutional amendment banning child labor was proposed. They also hired photographer Lewis Hine to expose grisly conditions of child labor. However, their efforts met with significant resistance, especially in coal mining states in the South.

Muller v. Oregon

The Supreme Court’s 1908 decision in Muller v. Oregon led to increased demand for women’s rights reforms by various organizations, although these labor reforms only helped women, not their male counterparts. SCOTUS mainly focused on motherhood when deciding to uphold an Oregon law limiting women’s workday to 10 hours. Not only was it a major victory for women’s rights advocates, it cleared the way for social science research to be used in future cases.

Teddy Roosevelt’s antitrust legislation

President Teddy Roosevelt’s antitrust stances led to further reinforcement of existing legislation as well as the passage of new laws to dissolve monopolies and protect workers’ rights. For example:

• 1906 Hepburn Act reinforced the earlier Interstate Commerce Act

• 1914 Clayton Antitrust Act strengthened the rather vague Sherman Antitrust Act

• 1903 Elkins Act stopped discriminatory railway rates that favored large corporations

• created the Bureau of Corporations to investigate and prosecute unfair business practices

This legislation led to the Supreme Court’s dissolution of various trusts, such as the Northern Securities Company and Standard Oil.

19th Amendment

Lobbying by organizations such as NAWSA and the NWP led to the 19th Amendment, which was the first Constitutional amendment to deal with women’s suffrage. It was ratified on August 26th, 1920. This followed a worldwide pattern of women’s rights reform after WWI - in fact, several methods of protest by American feminist groups were inspired by that of their militant British counterparts.

Newlands Reclamation Act

The 1902 Newlands Reclamation Act was an example of a federal response that promoted agriculture in areas where the environment wasn’t naturally suited for farming using irrigation. It promoted the sale of public lands to raise money for irrigation projects to expand agriculture in arid climates.

Dust Bowl

The ecological issues of the Dust Bowl (1930-1941) led to intervention by several new agricultural organizations that aimed to preserve natural resources, such as the TVA, CCC, and USDA.

Wisconsin Idea

The Wisconsin Idea, pioneered by governor Robert La Follette, promoted popular Progressive ideas like economic intervention, a commitment to democracy, and accountability of corporations. It also introduced the ideas of recall, referendum, and initiative.

Progressive Party

Theodore Roosevelt’s Progressive Party was an example of one end of the Progressive spectrum, which was extremely radical but still didn’t support African-American rights. Roosevelt advocated for “New Nationalism”, saying that the government should intervene with public affairs as much or as little was required to maintain the public welfare.

New Deal

FDR’s plan for economic recovery after the Great Depression, involving numerous programs and pieces of legislation in addition to the reduction of unemployment. The Hundred Days session saw Congress pass 15 major bills related to banking failures, agricultural overproduction, the business slump, and soaring unemployment. This included:

• Emergency Banking Act

• Glass-Steagall Act

• Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)

• National Recovery Administration (NRA)

• Federal Emergency Relief Act (FERA)

• Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

• Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

(see alphabet soup flashcards for definitions)

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

FDR was a main force behind the New Deal and was often credited by the public with solving their problems due to his popularity and effectiveness as a president. He won the 1932 election easily because of the national dislike of Hoover following the Depression and was the only president to serve more than 2 terms in office (3 full, one cut short by his death in 1945). He pledged and delivered vigorous government action to help achieve the “3 R’s”: relief, recovery, and reform.

National Association of Manufacturers

The NAM was a conservative group that opposed the New Deal. Many bankers and business executives disagreed that Roosevelt was the self-proclaimed savior of American capitalism and believed that a publicity campaign was necessary to save American business. They promoted free enterprise and scorned liberalism. This public disdain led to the Supreme Court striking down some New Deal programs, such as the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), as an overstep of the powers of the executive branch.

Father Coughlin

Leaders such as Father Coughlin caused FDR to publically shift further left politically in response to their rising popularity amongst the working public. He was a liberal critic of the New Deal and was nicknamed the “Radio Priest”. He believed that FDR and the New Deal hadn’t done enough to ensure the social welfare of U.S. citizens. He also led the National Union for Social Justice and was one of the most recognizable religious leaders in the U.S., with his radio audience reaching 30 million at its peak.

welfare state

The creation of a welfare state through various pieces of legislation such as the Social Security Act (SSA) fostered a new relationship between the federal government and its constituents.

• the Revenue Act symbolized the new outlook of FDR’s presidency

• SSA (1935) created old age pensions and joint payments for widows/disabled people

• Works Progress Administration (WPA) employed 8.5 million people from 1935-1943

Many who benefitted from welfare became newly politically aligned with the Democratic Party as a result.

Second New Deal

The Second New Deal brought about the idea of New Deal liberalism, which helped bring about the identity shift of both major political parties and led to further federal help for the needy. The meaning of the word “liberal” changed - it had previously been used to refer to laissez-faire ideology, but now referred to government assistance given to preserve the liberty of the public.

Hollywood/rise of cinema

Cinema was a main catalyst for trendsetting and the spread of both culture and government propaganda in 1920s America. In the 1910s, the movie industry moved to southern California for the cheap land, sunshine, and varied scenery. Large studios were predominantly run by Eastern European immigrants (United Artists, Paramount, Metro-Goldwyn Mayer, etc.). Movies used soft power (the exercise of popular cultural influence) to run government propaganda during both world wars.

radio

Radio became extremely popular in regions across the country, which led to the creation and spread of one national culture as the singular radio programming broadcast all over broke regional cultural barriers. It was also used for FDR’s fireside chats, which informed the whole nation on current events during WW2 and roused national support for the president.

Harlem Renaissance movement

The Harlem Renaissance movement was a wave of African-American cultural expression following the Great Migration (between 1917 and the 1930s). Artists asserted pride in black identity and culture through art, literature, activism, film, and music. Some figures of the Harlem Renaissance included Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Duke Ellington, and Louis Armstrong.

Zora Neale Hurston

Zora Neale Hurston was a black author who embodied the spirit of and conveyed the message of the Harlem Renaissance. Unlike other black figures of the time, she believed that black culture could be understood and celebrated without the inclusion of the impacts of racism and oppression.

jazz

Jazz was an extremely impactful and widely popular product of the Harlem Renaissance era that helped bring attention to black artists/creators in the 1920s and beyond. Some famous jazz musicians were Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington. Jazz originated in New Orleans, Louisiana and came to the North as part of the Great Migration, thriving during the Harlem Renaissance. Jazz clubs were a huge part of 20s culture in urban centers, helping with the rise of the “flapper” and dancing.

Red Scare

The first Red Scare stemmed from fear of Communist ideology following the Russian (Bolshevik) Revolution and sparked an era of civil unrest in America. After an anarchist mailed bombs to several U.S. officials (including Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer), Palmer conducted the notorious Palmer Raids on houses of suspected Communists with the help of the newly established Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) under the direction of J. Edgar Hoover. Further outrage sparked with the Sacco and Venzetti case - 2 Italian anarchists were unfairly tried and executed via the electric chair, likely because of their political standpoints.

Committee on Public Information

The CPI and other smaller organizations formed to create propaganda supporting the war, patriotism, and Americanization. It was formed in April 1917 by President Wilson in order to suppress dissent during the war, and it was headed by journalist George Creel. It aimed to “educate citizens about democracy, assimilate immigrants, and keep rural life from isolation”.

ERA (Equal Rights Amendment)

The ERA, first introduced in 1923, was one highly controversial piece of proposed legislation having to do with the rights and roles of women - specifically, giving them equal rights to that of men. It was promoted by Alice Paul and the National Woman’s Party. Opponents pointed out that the ERA would threaten recent labor laws protecting working women. The ERA divided women’s rights advocates and, although it was introduced into Congress repeatedly, it rarely made it out of committee.

prohibition

Prohibition (the ban of the sale/manufacture of alcohol) seemed to be universally agreed upon when the 18th Amendment and Volstead Act were enacted. However, poor law enforcement, gang violence (ex. Al Capone), and various illegal acts (like smuggling/making alcohol) during that era ultimately changed public opinion of it and caused its downfall via the 21st Amendment in 1933.

National Origins Act of 1924

The National Origins Act was intended to keep out more immigrants (especially from southern and eastern Europe) who were bringing over ideas that contradicted “typical” Anglo-Saxon Protestant American ideals. It was something of an extension of the earlier Emergency Quota Act (1921). It used old census data (initially from 1910 but it was later changed to 1890) to calculate the amount of people from each country allowed in per year (2% which was 1% less than the original Emergency Quota Act).

Emergency Quota Act of 1921

The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 was created as a result of intense pressure from the American public to limit the influx of immigrants. It was supposedly based on “scientific research” (eugenics - the 1907-1911 Dillingham Commission concluded that these immigrants threatened public welfare) which proved the supposed threat that these immigrants posed to the United States. It allowed for 3% of the 1910 population of people from a given country to enter every year (these numbers were changed with the National Origins Act in 1924).

“Second Gold Rush”

The “Second Gold Rush” was a term used by the San Francisco Chronicle in 1943 to describe the large influx of migrant workers to California, which was the center of war production for the Pacific theater in WW2. Californian factories received 1/10 of all federal dollars and made 1/6 of all war materials in exchange. These factories caused massive population increases; such as the opening of Kaiser Corporation’s shipyard, which caused the population of Richmond, CA to quadruple. Newfound mobility combined with sheer distance from their hometowns led to the loosening of tradition and rendered wartime cities both diverse and exciting.

Bonus Army

The Bonus Army was an example of a group of Americans temporarily migrating to urban centers in search of economic assistance in the midst of the major economic problem in the 1930s - the Great Depression. In 1932, a group of 15,000 unemployed WW1 veterans marched on the U.S. Capitol, demanding their war bonus that wasn’t due to be paid until 1945. At first, the government allowed local police to house them in abandoned buildings and feed them; but after Congress denied their request, Hoover ordered federal troops under Douglas MacArthur to clear them out.

Great Migration

The Great Migration was the mass exodus of African-Americans from the segregated South to northern urban centers in search of a safe, more prosperous life. Over 400,000 moved to the North during WW1. This led to cultural transformation, as evidenced by the Harlem Renaissance. Many companies sought black workers while their usual workers were off at war. They still encountered some discrimination in the North (especially in education and housing), but they were able to celebrate their escape from the racist, poverty-stricken, sometimes downright dangerous South.

race riots

Race riots erupted as a result of postwar conflicts between black and white workers in Northern and Midwestern cities. The expectations of African-American workers rose because of the employment they had enjoyed during the war, but white resistance to their integration led to violence. Over 25 cities experienced these riots, including Chicago (1919), St. Louis (1917), and Tulsa (1921). By September 1919, at least 120 people were dead as a result of these riots.

Mexican immigration

Many Mexicans immigrated to the U.S. in search of work (often in the West) that had previously been done by other immigrants. With the Emergency Quota and National Origins Acts, there were more opportunities for non-European immigrants in America. Over 1 million Mexicans came between 1900-1930, despite nativists and union leaders begging Congress to stop this influx. Congress sided with Western employers who benefited from this source of cheap, replaceable labor. However, their arrival also led to the establishment of the U.S. Border Patrol in 1926.

New Deal effects on Mexicans

Although FDR generally supported deportation of Mexican laborers, they held him in high regard because of how the New Deal benefited them as well as the Democrats’ care for “regular people”. Around 500,000 Mexicans were deported between 1929 and 1937, even though nearly 60% were U.S. citizens. However, many also received jobs and relief from New Deal programs like the WPA, CCC, and NYA.

Turner thesis

The Turner thesis, authored by Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893, essentially mourned the closing of the western American frontier. It claimed that the very basis of America’s identity lay in expansion and exploration. When the 1890 Census declared the frontier fully explored, Turner worried that the benefits of the frontier era would be lost to future American generations. He also invoked the idea of Manifest Destiny, saying that America’s cultural and ideological superiority was what had helped it expand across North America. He said that with the close of the frontier came the close of the first period of American history.

imperialism

Imperialism, the practice of expanding a country’s influence over another, was both a cause and an effect of exceptionalism and colonization in the 1890s and beyond. This caused increasing public support for the annexation of new territories like Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. America would help these smaller countries fight off their colonizers, then take control by forcing their people to choose between total assimilation and U.S. military intervention. These ideas were fed by those of Social Darwinism and Manifest Destiny. U.S. influence was also extended through dollar diplomacy.

American Anti-Imperialist League

The American Anti-Imperialist League advocated against the motivations behind the U.S.’s actions in the Philippines in its 1899 platform, citing imperialism as a threat to freedom. It said that subjugation of any group of people is unjust and aggressive toward government. It tended towards isolationism and said that citizens of colonized countries were not obligated to support the U.S. government if it ignored pressing issues or took advantage of the people. It was supported by notable figures like Jane Addams, Andrew Carnegie, and Mark Twain.

Lewis H. Douglass on Black Opposition

Lewis H. Douglass’ letter to President McKinley showed the perspective of many black anti-imperialists: if the U.S. can’t even help its current citizens, why add more? McKinley had claimed that Filipinos governed under American sovereignty would not be treated as slaves but as citizens, but Douglass pointed out that the U.S. had always valued profit over human rights in colonization and would likely treat these new citizens the same way it treated its current minorities.

Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War led to the annexation of Guam, Puerto Rico, Hawai’i (indirectly), and the Philippines as strategic naval positions as well as Cuban independence. Spain declared war on the U.S. on April 24, 1898 - but the war was over when Manila fell on August 13 of the same year. In the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the U.S. bought the Philippines for $20 million and forced Cuba to add the Platt Amendment to their new Constitution.

Open-Door policy

The U.S.’s Open-Door Policy led to a new involvement in various Asian affairs, including economic trade and diplomacy. The U.S. wanted to enter highly competitive East Asian markets, so Secretary of State John Hay sent coastal Chinese countries a message in 1899 claiming the right of equal trade access (“open door”) for all countries seeking to do trade in China. However, the U.S. lacked leverage in Asia and these messages weren’t really accepted. The U.S. then sent 5,000 troops to break a Chinese nationalist campaign in Beijing in order to keep China in the realm of possibility in terms of trade. Additionally, Teddy Roosevelt’s role in ending the conflict between Japan and Russia earned him a Nobel Peace Prize. The U.S. both supported and respected Japan, and the Root-Takanira Agreement confirmed the principles of free commerce and recognized Japan’s authority over Manchuria.

Roosevelt Corollary

The 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine basically served as justification for American interference in the Caribbean. Teddy Roosevelt said that the U.S. would only interfere with neighboring countries if they posed a threat to America or its ideology. It was cited multiple times when intervening in both the Caribbean and Central America over the next 3 decades.

Platt Amendment

The Platt Amendment, adopted by Cuba on May 22, 1903, was a treaty between the U.S. and Cuba following the Spanish-American War. It attempted to protect Cuba’s independence from foreign influence (kept them from going into debt with other nations) but also allowed extensive U.S. involvement in Cuban affairs. It was presented to the Cuban Constitutional Convention by Senator Orville Platt. The U.S. also kept control of Guantanamo Bay as a naval base.

Philippine-American War

Between 1899-1902 (as a result of the Spanish-American War), an insurrection that was an extension of the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule began when the U.S. assumed sovereignty over the Philippines. Filipinos declared independence on June 12, 1898, and set up a provisional government with Emilio Aguinaldo as president, but since Spain had technically ceded the Philippines to the U.S. in the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the U.S. ignored Filipino independence. This led Aguinaldo to issue a proclamation of war against the U.S., where anti-imperialist sentiment ran rampant. President McKinley convened the Second Philippine Commission to create a civil government for the Philippines in March 1900, but the war began to end starting on March 23, 1901, when Aguinaldo was captured and pledged allegiance to the U.S. (some guerilla warfare continued anyways).

struggle for WW1 neutrality

America struggled to maintain neutrality at the beginning of World War 1. They eventually decided to enter on the Allied side, opposing the Central Powers, due to Germany’s disregard for U.S. trade rights and lives. It had been hard to unite the public anyway as immigrant groups had various biases but Progressive Republicans, Socialists, and other groups opposed entering the war in general. The Jan. 1917 Zimmermann telegram, which urged Mexico to join the Central Powers, scared Americans into joining as well; they were afraid of an invasion following Pancho Villa’s border raids.

War Industries Board

The War Industries Board was one of many federal organizations that helped mobilize the economy in response to the U.S. entering the war. Helping the Allies triggered an economic boom that benefited farmers, workers, and businesses alike. As the U.S. sent weapons and goods abroad and provided capital for global investments (the war drained Britain’s reserves), the WIB was established in July 1917 to direct military production. Headed by Bernard Baruch, it allocated scarce resources among industries and made various factories direct their energies towards war production.

American Expeditionary Forces

The addition of the AEF’s troops to that of the Allied forces led to the rapid halt of Germany’s western offensive and, eventually, their defeat in WW1. After Congress invoked a military draft in May 1917, military enrollment skyrocketed - 9.5 million men volunteered on June 5th alone. Led by General Pershing, the AEF were trained to replenish European troops overseas and were able to focus on the Western Front due to the fall of the Eastern Front (Russian/Bolshevik Revolution). With the help of the U.S., Germany was forced to retreat by September and signed an armistice on Nov. 11, 1918.

“doughboys”

The American forces, widely called “doughboys”, were rather diverse and considered the key factor that brought about the turning point leading to the Allied victory in WW1. There were almost 4 million U.S. soldiers and several thousand nurses by the end of the war, 20% of whom were born outside America. Black soldiers, who made up around 13% of the total U.S. fighting force, served in segregated units and performed menial tasks. Native Americans, however, served alongside whites and were assigned dangerous duties thanks to being stereotyped as “warriors”. In total, 50,000 died in action and around 63,000 died from disease during the war.

Treaty of Versailles

Although President Woodrow Wilson played a large part in the planning and negotiation of postwar peace treaties, U.S. representatives refused to ratify it for various reasons. One was that Republicans (like Robert LaFollette) opposed involvement in European affairs in general, adhering to the traditional U.S. policy of isolationism. Others opposed Article X of the treaty, which was a provision for collective security, for similar reasons - avoidance of foreign entanglements.

League of Nations

The League of Nations was part of Woodrow Wilson’s plan for peace after WW1 and involved international cooperation for collective security as well as other antiwar measures. For instance, participating countries would have to submit disputes to the League for consideration before going to war. The Allies based talks on Wilson’s “14 Points”, which embodied important aspects of progressivism, open diplomacy, freedom of navigation over the seas, arms reduction, and removal of trade barriers. Wilson hoped that the League would end wars in general, but he was met with harsher realities during negotiations.

dollar diplomacy

Dollar diplomacy was the term used to describe a popular U.S. policy involving foreign loans and some military intervention to enforce repayment, seeking prosperity. Bankers wanted a form of federal insurance in weak or unstable countries such as Bolivia, and when these countries accepted loans from U.S. banks, the State Department forced them to accept financial oversight by a bank-controlled commission. If they didn’t comply, the U.S. would intervene militarily to force repayment; beginning to view these invaded countries as U.S. possessions. It was highly criticized by some in America as unethical and a violation of democracy.

isolationism

The U.S. political tradition of isolationism ran rampant in the years after WW1 as both the public and many prominent political figures felt that U.S. interests in the war (which were relatively minor compared to other countries) didn’t justify its casualties. They drew upon historical documents such as Washington’s Farewell Address and the Monroe Doctrine to support their perspective.

Pearl Harbor

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7th, 1941) united the American people under the cause of the Allies and led to the U.S. joining World War 2. It was labeled a “day of infamy” by FDR and, in addition to rallying public support for the war effort, led to increased discrimination against Japanese-Americans. This was combined with the given dislike of dictator Hideki Tojo’s fascist policies and alliance with the Nazis.

National Socialist (Nazi) Party

The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, was the main factor behind the sudden rise of Germany’s military power that caused other nations to “pick sides” with its aggression. Hitler became chancellor of Germany in 1933 and was granted dictorial powers, which he used to outlaw other political parties, arrest political rivals, and declare himself leader (or Fuhrer). He aimed to lead Germany to world dominance after what he felt was unfair treatment in the Treaty of Versailles. He also aimed to eliminate minorities which he viewed as inferior, especially Jewish people, to create one Aryan “master race”. He violated the Treaty of Versailles in several ways (rearming Germany, sending troops into demilitarized zones, etc.), but Britain and France didn’t interfere whatsoever at first.

Neutrality Act of 1935

The Neutrality Act of 1935 and its additions in the years following showed America’s initial refusal to join WW2. It imposed an embargo on selling arms/supplies to warring countries and declared that Americans travelling on ships from those countries did so at their own risk. In 1936, Congress banned loans to warring countries; in 1937, a “cash-and-carry” payment requirement was imposed (if warring countries wanted to buy arms/supplies, they had to pay cash and use their own vessels for transport). This kept the U.S. out of naval warfare at that time.

Popular Front

The Popular Front was a small but prominent group of Americans that advocated for U.S. intervention against the rise of European fascism before the war. They also supported various international causes, such as the Loyalists fighting Francisco Franco’s fascist regime in the Spanish Civil War. It drew from a wide range of social groups; such as Communists, civil rights activists, trade unionists, left wing intellectuals, and New Deal administrators.

fascism

Fascism was a doctrine embraced by most of the countries that were at the center of the war in Europe (especially Germany and Italy) and it was viewed by the American people as a threat to both freedom and democracy, as FDR had warned in 1936. At its core, fascism was an antidemocratic movement that began in Europe following the Great Depression. It opposed both economic collectivism (like the USSR/Stalin) and competitive capitalism (like the U.S.).

“Four Freedoms”

FDR’s January 1941 “Four Freedoms” speech was important as it painted the war as a fight to preserve liberty for all amidst the rise of fascism. In that speech, FDR tried to persuade Congress to increase aid to Britain, whose survival he viewed as key to American security. It outlined the “4 essential human freedoms” (freedom of speech/democracy and from want/fear). He linked the fate of democracy in western Europe to the new welfare state at home while also pledging to end special privileges for the elite.

organized labor after New Deal (Wagner Act)

The Wagner Act’s support of labor unions (as part of the New Deal) helped mobilize organized laborers and end the Great Depression by extension. Unions had become demoralized in the 1920s, but the Wagner Act brought them back to life by protecting and promoting them under federal law. By 1930, 23% of the industrial workforce had unionized, which was triple the previous amount. A new union movement led by the CIO (Congress of Industrial Organizations) promoted industrial unionism: when workers from one industry gathered under one collective union. These changes caused leaders like John L. Lewis to declare that the era of privilege was over (in reference to the Gilded Age).

war financing

Groups like the WPB (War Production Board) and actions on the part of both large businesses and ordinary Americans helped mobilize the U.S. economy for war and recover from the Great Depression. For instance, companies like General Motors were persuaded to convert to military production, building tanks instead of cars or some other similar switch. This massive shift helped the U.S. economy produce an astounding amount of military supplies: 86,000 tanks, 296,000 airplanes, 15 million guns/rifles, 64,000 landing craft, and 6,500 cargo ships/naval vessels.

code talkers

Native American “code talkers” played a pivotal role in the war as their languages were used as codes to pass along information that couldn’t be deciphered by any non-Allied nation. For example, Navajo code talkers sent and received over 300 messages without error at the Battle of Iwo Jima. Other languages, such as Comanche, Choctaw, and Cherokee, were used in the European theater.

female military groups

Female military groups such as the WAC (Women’s Army Corps) and WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) allowed women to play a larger part in the war effort, despite their opportunities for work being limited. Around 350,000 women served in the U.S. military in some capacity, with around 140,000 in the WAC and 100,000 in WAVES. 1/3 of registered nurses (around 75,000) volunteered for military duty in WW2, and they were predominantly women as well. Around 1,000 were WASPs (Women’s Airforce Service Pilots) who ferried planes/supplies across noncombat areas. While their duties were limited so that they couldn’t command men or be on the same level of work as them, there is no question that American women were a massive help to the war effort.

island-hopping

Island-hopping was an Allied strategy used in the Pacific theater that, combined with the atomic bombing of the Japanese mainland, led to U.S. victory over Japan. It was primarily used between 1942-1945 and led the Japanese, who refused to surrender, to become so desperate that they began flying suicidal kamikaze missions to try to stop U.S. troops. U.S. troops in the Pacific theater were led by General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Chester W. Nimitz.

D-Day invasion

The D-Day invasion (June 6th, 1944) was the start of the Allied campaign to invade and liberate France. It was ultimately successful, although its initial casualties were very high. It was the largest armada ever assembled, led by General Dwight D. Eisenhower. Once they invaded France via the beaches at Normandy, over 1.5 million soldiers and thousands of tons of military supplies were shipped there, but they never faced more than 1/3 of Hitler’s total forces (Wehrmacht). Allied troops finally liberated Paris in August 1944 and drove the Germans out of most of France and Belgium by September. Long range bombers attacked German cities of Dresden and Hamburg as well as both military and industrial targets.

Hiroshima

The bombing of Hiroshima in Japan led to Japan’s unconditional surrender to the U.S. as the country was physically and demographically devastated. The atomic bomb, developed by the Manhattan Project, was kept secret from everyone except the president and the researchers developing it. After it was successfully tested in Los Alamos, NM on July 16th, 1945, President Truman (after considering all other options) gave the order to launch bombs on two Japanese cities: Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 100,000 people ended up dying because of the bombing at Hiroshima, 60,000 at Nagasaki. It led almost immediately to the Japanese’s unconditional surrender on August 10th, 1945. This marked the official end of WW2 as well as the downfall of fascism.

effects of WW2 on Europe

World War 2 led to such drastic changes in European colonial imperialist influences, demographics, populations, economics, and politics that the U.S. was free to dominate as one of two remaining global super powers (the other being the USSR). Worldwide, over 50 million soldiers and civilians were killed - nearly 2.5% of the global population at the time. The Holocaust and its concentration camps killed nearly 6 million Jewish people (2.6 million from Poland alone). Additionally, 30 million people became homeless as a result of the obliteration of hundreds of European cities. Germany’s economy was obviously ruined, but even though Britain had technically emerged victorious, it was no longer a global super power as its finances were depleted. Finally, Asian and African colonies began rejecting the influence and control of their weakened European colonizers, representing a shift in global power dynamics.

Washington Disarmament Conference

1921-22 conference at which several treaties were signed, scaling down the British/American/Japanese navies, promising no fortifications of Allied territories in the Far East, and opening China to trade.

Dawes Plan

(1924) Reset German war reparations payments and initiated American loans to Germany as a way to stimulate payment to Britain and France, who owed money to the US. This fostered European hostility towards the US and American resentment in return.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

(1928) Signed by the US, France, and 60 other nations, forswearing war as an instrument of national policy. Named for the Secretary of State under Coolidge.

Stimson Doctrine

(1931) Declared that the US wouldn’t recognize any territory taken by force - after Japan overran Manchuria and closed the “Open Door” in China - but did nothing else. Named for Secretary of State under Hoover.

London Economic Conference withdrawal

FDR withdrew from the 1933 London Economic Conference over negotiations related to currency exchange, feeling that the economic agreement would tie his hands in domestic policy (didn’t want interference with his own plans for the US economy).

7th Pan-American Conference

Held in Uruguay in 1933. The US endorsed nonintervention (as opposed to the Roosevelt Corollary) and established the Good Neighbor Policy (emphasized cooperation/trade instead of military force to maintain stability in the hemisphere).

Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934

Set up independence for the Philippines by 1946.

Johnson Debt Default Act of 1934

Prevented European debtors from further borrowing from the US.

Nye Committee

Established in 1934 to investigate the role of American businesses in profiting from the manufacture of arms during WW1. (On the heels of the publication of “Merchants of Death”.)

FDR’s Quarantine speech

(1936) This speech indicated a shift in US foreign policy from isolationism to intervention. FDR claimed that in modern times, it was impossible for a nation to completely isolate itself from world affairs, so the US may as well abandon its tradition of isolation voluntarily for the side it supported morally to preserve peace and restore global trust after the war.

St. Louis incident

(1939) The US refused to allow entry to the Jewish passengers aboard the St. Louis after they had been denied entry to Cuba.

Neutrality Act of 1939

Funded a cash/carry policy for European democracies after the fall of Poland.

Lend-Lease Act of 1941

FDR declared that the US would send a substantial supply of war material to Britain.

Atlantic Charter

Issued by FDR and Winston Churchill; laid out American and British goals for WW2 (seek no territorial gains, changes must be in accordance with land’s residents, all had right to self-governance + fair trade, global economic/social welfare, freedom from want/fear, freedom of the seas, disarmament of all nations - aggressors in particular)