Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

Attribution

The explanation people give for their own or other’s behavior

Dispositional Attribution

Explaining behavior based on internal factors (personality, intelligence, effort)

Situational Attribution 

Explaining behavior based on external factors (environ7ment, luck, social influences.)

Explanatory Style

The habitual way a person explains events in their life

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing failures to external, temporary, and specific factors while attributing successes to internal factors.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing failures to internal, stable, and global causes, leading to a sense of helplessness

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining other’s behavior ( assuming someone is rude because they are a mean person rather than considering they had a bad day)

Actor-Observer Bias

the tendency to attribute our own behavior  to situational factors but others behavior to dispositional factors (“i failed the test because it was unfair, but my friend failed because they are DUMB”)

Self-Serving Bias

the tendency successes to dispositional factors (“i got an A because I'm smart”) and failures to situational factors (“I failed because the teacher is unfair”)

Locus of control

The extent to which people believe they control events in their lives.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that one's actions directly influence outcomes (e.g.,"I did well on the test because I studied hard").

External Locus of Control

The belief that external factors (e.g, luck, fate, or other people) determine outcomes (e.g., "I failed the test because the teacher is unfair*

Mere Exposure Effect

The tendency to develop a preference for things we are repeatedly exposed to (e.g., liking a song more after hearing it multiple times).

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When people's expectations about themselves or others influence behavior in a way that makes those expectations come true (e.g., a teacher expecting a student to do poorly and, as a result, giving them less attention, leading to poorer performance).

Social Comparison Theory

The process of evaluating oneself by comparing to others.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone perceived as better (can be motivating or discouraging).

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to someone perceived as worse (can boost self-esteem).

Relative Deprivation

Feeling deprived or disadvantaged when comparing oneself to others, even if one's situation has not changed (e.g., feeling underpaid when realizing coworkers earn more for the same job).

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people (e.g., "All athletes are bad at academics").Prejudice

Prejudice

 A negative attitude toward a group and its members, often based on stereotypes.

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members, influenced by prejudice.

 Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious beliefs that affect behavior without awareness (e.g., preferring one social group over another without realizing it).

Just-World Phenomenon

The tendency to believe that people get what they deserve (e.g, blaming victims for their misfortunes).

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

The tendency to perceive members of an out-group as all the same while seeing in-group members as diverse (e.g., "All people from that country act the same").In-Group Bias

In-Group Bias

Favoring members of one's own group over others (e.g., giving better treatment to people from the same social circle).

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture based on one's own cultural standards rather than understanding it on its own terms.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to initial beliefs even after they have been discredited (e.g., stilli believing a false conspiracy theory despite evidence to the contrary).

Confirmation Bias

Seeking out information that supports preexisting beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence (eg, only watching news sources that align with one's political views).

Cognitive Dissonance

The psychological discomfort that occurs when a person's attitudes and behaviors conflict, leading them to change either their beliefs or actions to reduce discomfort (e.g, feeling guilty about eating junk food while believing in healthy eating, then deciding that "one cheat day isn't so bad").

Social Norms

Unwritten rules about how to behave in society or specific situations (e.g., standing in line, shaking hands when meeting someone).

Social Influence Theory

The idea that people's thoughts and behaviors are influenced by social pressure.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to gain social acceptance or avoid rejection.

 Informational Social Influence

Conforming because one believes others are correct.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to align with group norms.

Obedience

Following direct commands from an authority figure.

Altruism

Helping others selflessly, even at a personal cost.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation that people will help those who depend on them (e.g., helping the elderly or children).

Bystander Effect

The tendency to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present, due to diffusion of responsibility (e.g., seeing someone in distress but assuming someone else will step in).

Persuasion

 Efforts to change beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors through communication.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Describes two routes to persuasion

Central Route to Persuasion

Persuasion through logical arguments and critical thinking (e.g., a political debate).

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

Persuasion through superficial cues like attractiveness or emotional appeal (e.g., celebrity endorsements).

Halo Effect

The tendency to assume someone's positive traits in one area extend to other areas (e.g., assuming an attractive person is also kind and intelligent).

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Gaining compliance by starting with a small request and then making a larger request later.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Gaining compliance by starting with a large, unreasonable request, then following up with a smaller, more reasonable one.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between groups, reducing tension and conflict (e.g., rival sports teams working together for charity)

Social Trap

A situation where individuals act in their own self-interest, leading to negative outcomes for the group (e.g., over fishing , pollution)

 Individualism vs. Collectivism

Individualism values independence and personal success.

Collectivism values group harmony and collective well-being.

Multiculturalism

 A perspective that recognizes and values cultural differences in society.roup Polarization

Group Polarization

The tendency for group discussions to strengthen the group's existing opinions (e.g., political groups becoming more extreme after discussion).

Groupthink

 When a group prioritizes harmony over critical thinking, leading to poor decision-making

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency to feel less responsible for taking action in a group setting (e.g., assuming someone else will step in to help).

Social Loafing

Putting in less effort when working in a group compared to working alone.

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness and restraint in group situations (e.g., riots, online anonymity).

Social Facilitation

 Performing better on simple tasks in front of an audience, but potentially worse on complex tasks.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others agree with one's beliefs or behaviors.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

The study of human behavior in the workplace, focusing on productivity, teamwork, leadership, and employee well-being.

Burnout

 Physical and emotional exhaustion due to prolonged work-related stress.

Psychodynamic Theory

A theory that views unconscious drives and conflicts as the foundation of personality.

Unconscious Processes

 Thoughts, desires, and memories that are hidden from awareness but still influence behavior.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies used to protect the ego from anxiety.

DENIAL

Refusing to accept reality

EX: A smoker insists smoking isn't harmful

DISPLACEMENT

Shifting impulses toward a less threatening target

EX: Yelling at a friend after being scolded by a boss

PROJECTION

Attributing one's own thoughts or feelings to others

EX: Accusing someone else of being angry when you're the one feeling anger

RATIONALIZATION

Justifying behavior with logical reasons instead of admitting true motives

EX: I only cheated on the test because the teacher is unfair

REACTION FORMATION

Acting in opposite ways to one's true feelings

EX: Treating someone you dislike overly nicely

REGRESSION

Reverting to an earlier stage of development

EX: An adult throwing a tantrum when upset

REPRESSION

Blocking anxiety-inducing thoughts from conscious awareness

EX: Forgetting a traumatic event

SUBLIMATION

Redirecting unacceptable urges into socially acceptable actions

EX: Channeling aggression into sports

Projective Tests

Personality assessments that use ambiguous stimuli to uncover unconscious thoughts

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Individuals describe what they see in inkblots, revealing unconscious thoughts.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Individuals create stories based on ambiguous pictures, which reveal unconscious motives and conflicts.

Humanistic Psychology

 Focuses on personal growth, free will, and self-actualization rather than unconscious conflicts.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Accepting and valuing a person without conditions or judgment (e.g., a therapist offering support no matter what the client says).

Self-Actualization

The drive to fulfill one's highest potential and become the best version of oneself.

Self-Concept

The collection of beliefs about oneself, shaping identity and behavior.

Social-Cognitive Theory

A personality theory that emphasizes how thoughts, social interactions, and environment influence behavior.

Reciprocal Determinism

 Bandura's idea that personality is shaped by the interaction between:

• Personal factors (beliefs, self-concept).

• Behavior (actions and experiences).

• Environmental influences (social interactions, opportunities).

Self-Concept

A person's perception of themselves, including their traits, identity, and self-worth.

Self-Efficacy

A person's belief in their ability to succeed in specific tasks (e.g, believing you can pass a test with enough effort).

Self-Esteem

A person's overall sense of self-worth and value (e.g., feeling confident or insecure about one's abilities).

Trait Theory

A perspective that views personality as a set of stable, enduring characteristics that shape behavior.

The Big Five Theory of Personality (OCEAN Model)

A widely accepted model that identifies five major personality traits

Openness to Experience

Creativity, curiosity, and willingness to try new things.

Conscientiousness

Organization, responsibility, and dependability.

Extraversion

Sociability, energy, and outgoing behavior.

Agreeableness

Compassion, trustworthiness, and cooperativeness.

Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)

Tendency toward anxiety, mood swings, and emotional instability.

Personality Inventories

Standardized tests used to measure personality traits (e.g., the NEO-PI-R for the Big Five).

Factor Analysis

A statistical technique used to identify clusters of personality traits based on test responses.

DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY

A theory that suggests humans are motivated to maintain homeostasis by reducing drives such as hunger, thirst, or fatigue (e.g., drinking water when thirsty).

AROUSAL THEORY

Suggests that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal-not too high or too low.

VERKES-DODSON LAW

A principle stating that moderate arousal leads to optimal performance, while too much or too little arousal impairs performance (e.g., feeling too anxious for a test can hurt performance, but a little stress may improve focus).

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY

Proposes that intrinsic motivation (doing something for personal satisfaction) and extrinsic motivation (doing something for external rewards) drive behavior.

INCENTIVE THEORY

Suggests that motivation is influenced by external rewards or incentives (e.g., studying hard for a reward like a good grade).

INSTINCT THEORY

The idea that animals are motivated by innate, fixed behaviors triggered by specific stimuli. Humans do not display clear instinctual behavior.

LEWIN'S MOTIVATIONAL CONFLICTS THEORY

Proposes that choices create conflicts one must resolve as basis motivation.

Approach-Approach Conflict

Choosing between two desirable options (e.g., deciding between two great vacation destinations).

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict

Choosing between two undesirable options (e.g., choosing between doing chores or writing a long essay).