AOS 1 - Geography - Deforestation

What are forests defined as?

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO) defines forests as "land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 metres and a canopy cover of more than 10%, or trees able to reach this threshold"

What are the 3 categories of forest that they can be classified under?

1. Climate

2. Closed, open or woodland

3. Primary, Secondary or plantation forests

What are the 3 categories of forest that they can be classified under?

tropical, subtropical, boreal, and temperate

what are the classification for a closed, open and woodland forest?

• Closed - greater than 80% canopy cover

• Open - 50-80% canopy cover

• Woodland - less than 50% canopy cover

What are the classifications for a primary, secondary or plantation forest?

• Primary - old growth needs to present and intact, running under natural processes with minimal human intervention

• Secondary - have been disturbed by human activity

• Plantation - the planting of a particular species for commercial use or environmental services.

How much of the world's forests are primary forests?

34%

How much of the world's secondary are primary forests?

59%

How much of the world's forests are plantation forests?

7%

Define DEFORESTATION

The long-term reduction of tree canopy cover to below 10-30 per cent (depending on the type of forest).

Define AFFORESTATION

Afforestation involves planting trees on land that was not previously forested.

Define REFORESTATION

Reforestation is the seeding/replanting after forestry activities.

What is net change in forest cover?

The tree cover gain minus the tree cover loss

For what reasons are forests often cleared?

- as a source of wood and non-wood products

- to accommodate other land use (agriculture and urbanisation)

- as a result of natural disasters (floods/fires)

What is the process of deforestation impacted by?

The process of deforestation and the damage caused varies depending on how the forests are cleared or modified.

What is the difference between forest degradation and deforestation?

Forest degradation is when forests are cleared through human activities such as logging, replanting or fuelwood collection.

What is fragmentation?

Fragmentation is when pockets of land are cleared, leaving a series of intact forest fragments. Over time these fragments become too isolated to support forest ecosystems of plants and animals.

How much of the earth's surface is covered in forest currently and prior to the advent of agriculture

Today forest cover is at 31%, prior to agriculture it is believed to be almost 50%

Until the mid-1900s what forest type experience the most deforestation?

Tropical forests - found in China, Europe, North America and Australia.

What human activities contribute to deforestation and forest cover loss?

- Agriculture (responsible for 73%)

- Logging (19%)

- Wood fuel collection for cooking/heating (6%)

- Infrastructure

What factors drive the human activities?

Economic development, poverty, poor forest protection law and enforcement, corruption.

What natural processes lead to deforestation or forest cover loss?

- Insect pests and diseases (<2%)

- Wildfires

- Climatic events (hurricanes, cyclones, storms, droughts, floods)

- Tectonic plate events (landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions)

- Natural climate change on a long term scale

Describe the interconnection between human and natural factors

The Feedback Loop:

Deforestation > More CO2 in the atmosphere > Increasing global temps > More droughts and wildfires > More trees lost > Less CO2 sequestration > More CO2 in the atmosphere ... repeats

Why is it important to stop deforestation in terms of what the environment offers humans?

There are many ecosystem services that the environment provides, such as regulating, cultural, provisioning, and supporting services

How have rates of species extinction been impacted by deforestation?

Rates of extinction have increased by 1000 times higher than natural rates. With 10-30% of mammal, bird and amphibian species being threatened by extinction

How much does deforestation contribute to global emissions?

It contributes about 10% to global emissions, with forests being the most significant carbon 'sink'. Storing 54% of terrestrial carbon, more than the atmosphere.

What is ground truthing?

Ground truthing involves collecting samples of data collected on site at ground level to verify remotely sensed images.

Provide some challenges with geospatial tech when regarding deforestation?

- cloud cover or moisture in air can hamper analysis

- different measurement techniques, tech, and forest definitions can make comparison and analysis of change difficult

- Some geo-spatial tech cannot detect small scale deforestation

- High-res imagery and advanced tech can be very costly and require advanced computing infrastructure.

Where is Cameroon found?

- Central Africa

- Latitude: 7.3697° N, Longitude: 12.3547° E

- Capital is inland city Yaounde, largest city is Doula

What types of land cover are found in Cameroon?

• Geographically, it is a mixture of desert plains in the north, mountains in the central regions, and tropical rainforests in the south.

• With 40% of all land cover being forested land.

• Majority of the Southern region of Cameroon is dominated by dense tropical rainforests, which is apart of the Congo Basin (stretches across Central Africa)

• The Congo is the world's second largest rainforest in the world, containing 20% of the world's remaining closed canopy rainforests.

Provide data on the biodiversity levels in Cameroonian forests

• There are approx. 10,000 tropical plant species in the Basin, with 30% of them being endemic

• Endangered species include elephants, chimpanzees. bonobos, lowland and mountain gorillas

• 400 mammal species, 1,000 bird species, 700 fish species are found here.

How much deforestation has been occuring in Cameroon?

Since 2001-2023, Cameroon has lost 2.05 mega hectares of tree cover, equivalent to 6.5% decrease since 2000

What are the primary, secondary, and partial causes of deforestation?

Primary: Smallholder farming, large-scale agriculture

Secondary: Fuelwood charcoal, logging

Partial: Infrastructure, and urban expansion, cattle ranching,

mining operations.

Provide stats on Palm Oil Plantations in Cameroon

- Cameroon is the largest palm oil producer in Central Africa, producing more than 465,000 tonnes in 2023.

- It accounts for 24% of the world's total oil palm cultivated area

- 67% of oil expansions from 2000-2015 occured at the expense of primary forests

- Areas of palm oil suitability overlap with the Congo Basin, which accounts for 25-30% of the world's tropical forest carbon stocks

What are the main reasons for changes in distribution of forests over time in Cameroon. (eg: the Trans-Cameroon railway)

- increasing populations have increased the demand for products that Cameroonian forests can provide.

- In late 1964 the construction of the Trans-Cameroon railway began, and went into operation in 1974 - this increased access

- The eastern regions of Cameroon have become the nation's biggest timber supplier, supplying 60% of the nation's timber.

How can Global Forest Watch be used to assess and manage deforestation in Cameroon, state strengths and weaknesses.

Strengths:

- accessible for everyone worldwide.

- aids wit important research and monitoring of deforestation.

- Tracks/identifies all deforestation due to agriculture purposes or through illegal logging.

- Rangers trying to protect vast areas of rainforest from illegal logging can use it.

Weaknesses:

- Can't provide solutions to deforestation, only monitor it.

List some POSITIVE NATIONAL impacts of deforestation in Cameroon

Environmental - Increased conservation/national focus on the environment

Economic - Palm Oil and Rubber Industry contribute greatly to the economy.

Elaborate on the positive, national, environmental impacts of deforestation

Forest land cover is distributed across 40% of Cameroon, accounting for 11% of the Congo Basin, that stretches across Central Africa.

Deforestation rates are increasing the focus of conserving the Congo Basin, and its importance of it as a carbon sink. Due to this more initiatives have been created, such as:

• Cameroon's Vision 2035

• The National Development Strategy for 2020-2030 (SND 30) (both recognize the importance of climate change impacts and have dedicated climate-related objectives.)

• Cameroon's National Determined Contributions (NDCs) (focused greatly on sustainable forest management in its climate action plan)

Elaborate on the positive, national, economic impacts of deforestation regarding the Palm Oil Industry

- The production of palm oil is widely distributed across large agriculture industry, plantations, supervised smallholder plantations, and independent smallholdings.

- This industry creates 11,000 jobs for workers in the CDC. Over 5,000 workers being employed in Soca palm, another large company.

Elaborate on the positive, national, economic impacts of deforestation regarding the Rubber Industry

- Provides employment for over 16,000 workers, both full time and temporary.

- Investments in rubber plantations being used to fund the construction of roads, schools, and healthcare facilities in rural areas.

- The exports are worth $53.6 million (2023)

Negative Impacts

Environmental:

• Biodiversity loss

• Logging industry

• Rubber industry

Social

• Impacts on non-timber forest products

Economic

• Logging industry

• Impacts on non-timber forest products

Elaborate on the negative, national, environmental impacts of deforestation regarding the Biodiversity loss

• Construction of roads leading to fragmentation

• Impacts large species such as gorillas, elephants who travel over large areas.

• Gorilla and chimpanzee populations have declined by 50% over the last 20 years.

• Forest elephant populations have also declined by over 60% in the last decade, due to habitat loss and fragmentation.

Elaborate on the negative, national, environmental impacts of deforestation regarding the Logging Industry

• The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) completed a study in 2002 that suggested that 50-70% of timber sourced from Cameroon is sourced illegally

• Companies extracting timber from areas that are five/six times their allotted space, due to weak monitoring and enforcement.

• Logging leads to habitat loss, soil erosion, water cycle disruption, increased greenhouse gas emissions

Elaborate on the negative, national, environmental impacts of deforestation regarding the Rubber Industry

• Chinese company Sud Cameroun Hevea (Sudcam), clearing an approximate 127 square km of primary rainforest over six years for rubber plantation

• This deforestation has encroached onto the Dja Faunal Reserve, which is a UNSECO World Heritage Site, and is threatening its biodiversity levels

• Caused due to european demand

Elaborate on the negative, national, social impacts of deforestation.

- Decreased the availability of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)

- Include fruits, nuts, medicinal plants, and bush meat.

Elaborate on the negative, national, economic impacts of deforestation, regarding the logging industry

- Timbre contributes 15% to total exports and 7% of the total GDP

- Due to government corruption illegal over-logging has increased.

- This has diverted revenue away from local populations and the national economy, and towards the illegal logging industry.

- Illegal logging contributes approx. 60-90% of total production.

Elaborate on the negative, national, economic impacts of deforestation, regarding the impacts on non-timer forest products

The annual economic value of 16 vegetable NTFPs estimated to be at 32 billion XAF (64.7 million USD), and the added value of them being estimated to be 6.4 billion XAF (13 million USD), contributing 0.2% to Cameroon's GDP.

List some NEGATIVE LOCAL impacts of deforestation in Cameroon

The displacement of Indigenous peoples - The Baka People and the Ebo Forest

Elaborate on the negative, local, social impacts of deforestation, regarding the displacement of Indigenous peoples - The Baka People

• The logging company Pallisco has impacted the Indigenous Baka people of Bidjoumam greatly.

• Leading to exploitation, dust, ill health and loss of land.

• They were forced to leave the forest in 1977, living along the muddy road, with Pallisco working in Cameroon since 1972, with its lease expected to expire in 2045.

• Reduced access to the fruits of Moabi, which grows in the primary forest they call Manfja. Provide oil, create straws that start fires and catch fish.

Elaborate on the negative, local, social impacts of deforestation, regarding the Ebo Forest

• Is home to a wide range of rich biodiversity, including Great Apes, and is Cameroon's largest intact forest covering an area of 2,000 km

• The Cameroonian government did open up parts of the forest for logging, but due to global aversion and international media coverage, this decision was changed

• Fragmentation is occuring due to legal and illegal logging

• Greenfil SA, a local subsidiary of the Azur palm oil company, was allowed to clear forest for a 123,000-hectare plantation on the border of Ebo Forest

What is an example of a global response to deforestation?

The United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030

Outline what the response if (who, what, when, where and why)

• WHO: Has universal membership, comprising all United Nations member states and permanent observers

• WHAT: An intergovernmental policy forum established in 2000 to promote the management, conservation, and sustainable development of all types of forests, and to strengthen long-term political commitment to this end.

• WHEN: Was established in 2000, and has a strategic plan that spans from 2017-2030

• WHERE: Headquarters is found in New York

• WHY: Aims to reduce deforestation on a global scale, while addressing the environmental, social, and economic impacts of this reduction in forest loss.

What progress has been made since 2000?

In 2017, the UNFF met and adopted its strategic plan for forests. This plan presents 6 global forest goals which provide the framework for sustainable management of forests, halting deforestation and forest degradation.

What are the aims/objectives of the UNFF

To balance environmental priorities of forest protection with the use of forest resources as means of subsistence and sustainable income, particularly for Indigenous commuinities and poorer rural commuinities whose livelihoods depend of the forests.

What are the 6 goals?

1. Reverse loss of forest cover worldwide, through sustainable forest management, protection, afforestation and restoration.

2. Enhance forest based economic, social, environmental benefits and improve the livelihoods of forest dependant people

3. Increase the amount of protected forests globally

4. Increase financial resources

5. Promote governance frameworks

6. Enhance coordination and cooperation on forest related issues at all levels.

How effective has this response been?

• This plan does not address the issue of greenhouse gas emissions, but rather focuses on the use of forests through the three pillars of sustainability - even though deforestation accounts for 17-29% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

• The UNFF needs to produce regular reports on these goals, and evaluate the progress of the forest related goals against the Sustainable Development Goals

• The latest 2021 report indicates that the world is not on track to increase forest cover by 3% by 2030.

State a National Response

1994 Forestry Law

What is the Forestry Law?

• Who: International stakeholders involved include the World Bank, environmental NGOs, French politicians and independent Cameroonian politicians, and logging companies

• What: It is a legal framework for the management, protection and sustainable use of forest resources.

• When: 1994

• Where: Cameroonian Government

• Why: Was created in response to increased forest loss due to agriculture and logging

What are the main aims

- To promote more sustainable forest management, conservation of biodiversity, and the fair distribution of benefits from forest resources

How will they achieve this?

- The local population is allowed to have in the permanent forest estate as a customary right, which will increase the distribution of forest resources, and ensure they are used sustainably.

- Land needs to be categoried into sections, with the main three being: communal forests, private forests, and community forests.

- The land that is used for forestry and/or wildlife habitat also needs to cover 30% of the overall land.

Evidence of the effectiveness

• Over about 25 years, 22 million hectares of forest have been lost.

• Impacting the 4 million people.

• So far 415 communities have signed the management agreements, which in total cover 1 million hectares.

• Success has been seen in the Ngoume community using the money they have gained to build bore hole and start a kindergarten

• Case studies report that only 17% of those involved in community forest projects are locals. With women, minority groups, and hunter gatherer Baka groups being sidelined.

• Due to minimal governance, there has been little community involvement, and deforestation/logging has continued.

What is an example of a Local response?

The Ebo Forest Research Project

What is the research project?

• Who: This research project is run by and involves locals

• What: It helps protect the gorillas from hunting pressures, and to study their environment to gain a better understanding of the fauna in the area

• When: Was established in 2005, shortly after the discovery of the gorillas.

• Where: There are two research stations set up within the forest

• Why: The population is geographically isolated from other species, reducing the genetic diversity and population size to 40 individuals.

What are the aims?

This project aims to protect these gorillas, and focus on the involvement and education of local communities on sustainable practices.

How will they achieve this?

• Through the involvement of local communities such as the 19 villages located on the edge of the Ebo Forest.

• Funding has been consistently provided by the Gorilla Guardian Club.

• Information about the forest, and gorillas is being taught at schools

• Joining the project provides loggers/hunters with a more reliable job that encourages a connection to the environment

How effective has this response been?

• Since 2002, the project has grown from two research centres to a team of over 20, many of whom come from the Ebo area, providing evidence of the success in involving the local community.

• The project is currently being managed by the Central Africa Program of the Zoological Society of San Diego's Institute for Conservation Research.

• This provides strong support for the project to work effectively and include/employ more local individuals.

• In 2020, together with other NGOs, and 40 villages surrounding the forest were able to stop the government from approving the logging of the area.

• The population size of the gorillas has been reported to have increased