Unit 0 Exam Study Guide - Key Terms and Concepts

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Unit 0 Exam Study Guide, including psychological perspectives, research methods, statistical analysis, and ethical guidelines.

Biological perspective

A psychological perspective focused on the biological bases of behavior and mental processes, including genetics, brain structures, and neurochemistry.

Behavioral perspective

A psychological perspective emphasizing observable, learned behaviors and the environmental conditions that influence them.

Cognitive perspective

A psychological perspective focused on internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, problem-solving, and language.

Evolutionary perspective

A psychological perspective examining how natural selection and adapted traits explain human psychological traits and behavior.

Humanistic perspective

A psychological perspective emphasizing personal growth, individual potential, free will, and self-actualization.

Psychodynamic perspective

A psychological perspective focusing on unconscious motives, internal conflicts, and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior.

Socio-cultural perspective

A psychological perspective examining how cultural norms, societal structures, and immediate social context influence human behavior and thinking.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Hindsight bias; “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon

The inclination to see an event as having been predictable after it has already occurred.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's own judgments, knowledge, or abilities.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more independent variables to measure their effect on a dependent variable while controlling extraneous factors.

Independent variable

The factor in an experiment that is directly manipulated or changed by the experimenter to assess its effect.

Dependent variable

The outcome factor measured in an experiment that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the groups.

Case study

An in-depth research method involving an intensive investigation of a single individual, group, or situation over time.

Correlation

A statistical measure of the extent to which two variables fluctuate together and predict each other, without establishing causation.

Meta-analysis

A quantitative statistical technique for combining and synthesizing results from multiple independent scientific studies on the same topic.

Naturalistic observation

A research method involving observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or intervention.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction or explicit statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiability

The principle that a scientific theory or hypothesis must be framed in a way that allows it to be proven wrong through empirical evidence.

Operational definition

A precise statement of the exact procedures and operations used to define research variables in measurable terms.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, often with different participants in different situations, to confirm basic findings.

Confounding variable

An extraneous factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect on the dependent variable in an experiment.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding all the scores and dividing by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score or value in a distribution of data.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution curve where most scores fall near the mean with fewer scores at extreme tails.

Positive skew

A data distribution where a concentration of scores falls at the lower end, and the tail extends toward the higher positive values.

Negative skew

A data distribution where a concentration of scores falls at the higher end, and the tail extends toward the lower negative values.

Bimodal distribution

A distribution that contains two distinct, high-frequency modes or peaks.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much individual scores vary around the mean score of a distribution.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a given score.

Regression toward the mean

The statistical phenomenon where extreme or unusual scores tend to fall back closer toward the average on subsequent testing.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a population to participate in a research study.

Population

The entire group of individuals about whom a researcher wants to draw conclusions.

Random sampling

A sample selection process in which every person in the target population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Convenience sampling

A non-probability sampling technique selecting individuals who are most easily accessible to the researcher.

Sampling procedure

The explicit methodology used to select a sample from a broader population.

Sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of the target population.

Generalizability

The extent to which experimental results and sample findings can be accurately applied to the broader population.

Experimental group

The group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to the treatment or independent variable.

Control group

The group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the active treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Placebo

An inactive substance or fake condition given to control group participants to isolate the effects of participant expectations.

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by participant expectations alone, rather than the active agent.

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group, but the researchers know.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental setup where neither the study participants nor the research staff collecting data know who belongs to the experimental or control group.

Experimenter bias

A research flaw occurring when a researcher's expectations subtly influence participant behavior or data interpretation.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others rather than truthfully.

Qualitative measures

Data collection methods that capture descriptive, non-numerical insights, such as interview transcripts or narrative observations.

Quantitative measures

Data collection techniques that yield numerical data that can be measured and analyzed mathematically.

Likert scale

A rating scale commonly used on survey questionnaires to measure participant attitudes or levels of agreement.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots representing the values of two variables, used to visually assess correlation.

Correlation coefficient (r-value)

A statistical index (denoted as $r$) ranging from $-1.0$ to $+1.0$ that measures the direction and strength of a linear relationship between two variables.

Effect size (small, medium, large)

A quantitative measurement indicating the magnitude or strength of a relationship between variables or an experimental outcome.

Statistical significance (p-value)

A statistical statement (denoted as $p$) evaluating how likely it is that an obtained outcome occurred by random chance rather than a true relationship.

Directionality problem

A limitation in correlational studies where two variables are related, but it is impossible to determine which variable causes changes in the other.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An administrative ethics board that reviews proposed research studies to ensure human participants are protected.

Informed consent/assent

An ethical requirement that study participants (or minors providing assent alongside parental consent) be informed of research procedures and potential risks before participating.

Confidentiality

The ethical rule requiring researchers to protect individual participant privacy by keeping personal identity and data secure.

Confederate

An actor who poses as a study participant in an experiment but secretly works for the research team.

Deception

Withholding full information or misleading participants about the true purpose of a study, permissible only when essential and followed by debriefing.

Debriefing

A post-experimental procedure where researchers fully explain the true study details, purpose, and any deception used to participants.