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Projective test
Triggers the projection of one’s inner dynamics, reveals unconscious motives
Rorschach Inkblot test
Most widely used projective test, its use is controversial
Thematic Apperception Test
Inner feelings and interests appear in stories made up about ambiguous scenes, can measure affiliation and achievement motivation
Trait
characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways
lexical hypothesis
all words that are needed to distinguish one person from another have been encoded into language
factor analysis
statistical procedure that identifies similarities in data, clusters of test items that tap basic components of a trait
CANOE- Big 5 traits
Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion
Levels of Big 5 traits
McAdams- Level 1: General traits, Level 2: Personal Concerns, Level 3: Identity
Level 3
Identity: each of us has a narrative of the self, current self evolved from prior self, and will contribute to future self, “internalized and evolving life story, or personal myth”
Freud’s View of Mankind’s Inhumanity to Mankind
At the most basic level, humankind if barbaric and cruel, we need cultural rules to control these impulses
Roger’s View (humanistic perspective)
Humankind is good and evil is a cultural construction, people are basically good and are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies, when the ideal and actual self are nearly alike, the self-concept is positive
Maslow
People are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, strive for self-actualization and self-transcendence, if psychological needs are met, we become concerned with personal safety
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Self-Actualization: desire to become the most that one can be, Characteristics of Self-Actualization Scale- few of us become fully self-actualized, think of it as inspiration, Esteem, Love and Belonging, Safety Needs, Physiological needs
Myers Briggs Type Indicator
“Popularity of this instrument in the absence of proven scientific worth is troublesome”, not a well respected measure, Isabel Myers Briggs- sort people based on personality types
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Measures both personality and psychopathology (clinically significant traits), identify emotional disorders, assesses people’s personality traits, 10 clinical scales, scored objectively
The Self
Who you think you are, Organizes our thoughts, feelings and actions, occupies the center of our personality
Self-Discrepancy Theory
the relations between and among different types of self-beliefs or self-state representations that produce emotional vulnerabilities rather than the particular content or nature of the actual self or of any other individual self-belief. Tory Higgins
Implications for Therapy
Not very easy to change yourself, if depressed, change elements of ideal self, if anxious change elements of ought self, we are the product and architect of our environment
Person Environment Transactions
Interpret, Create, Choose, ways a person can act on their environment, contribute to personality stability, everyone extracts a subjective psychological experience from env. shapes personality development, some children habitually misperceive aggressive intentions in their peers, proactive choices can lead to stability or change
Interpret
Focuses on how we react to environment, individuals evoke distinctive reactions from others based on their personality, person reacts back in “mutually interlocking evocative transaction, agressive children cause others to act agressively towards them- spanking
Choose
making deliberate choices, we make choices regarding friends, social media, careers, these choices shape us, influence of peers
Personality- Is there differential stability
yes, focuses on relative placement of individuals within a sample, identified studies, measured personality, test-retest greater than one year, consistency increased until age 50-59 when it peaked
Absolute Stability
Does personality change as we age, social vitality corresponds more closesly to traits like sociability, positive affect and gregariousness, social dominance reflects such traits as dominance, independence, self-confidence, especially in social contexts, people become more socially dominant E, pro-social A, conscientious C, emotionally stable with age N
Self-transcendence
meaning, purpose, identity, beyond the self
Humanistic theories
sought to turn psychology’s attention away from drives + conflict and towards our growth potential
Allport
describe personality in terms of fundamental traits-people’s characteristic behaviors and conscious motives
Hans Eysenck + Sybil Eysenck
Believed we cam reduce many of our normal individual variations to 2 dimensions, extraversion-introversion, emotional stability-instability
Personal inventories
longer questionnaires covering a wide range of feelings and behaviors
Maturity Principle
From adolescence onward, they become more conscientious and agreeable, less neurotic
How to predict behavior?
Complete a self-report survey or bring them into the lab and ask them to lead a group project, Assessment Center Approach- show me, the best predictor of future behavior is the person’s past behavior pattern in similar situations
Spotlight effect
We stand out less then we imagine, perceived spotlight is not real
Self-esteem
our feelings of high or low self-worth
Self-efficacy
our sense of competence
Dunning-Kruger Effect
Blindness to one’s own incompetence, justin Kruger, David Dunning, people are most overconfident when most incompetent, takes compotence to recognize competence
Social Cognitive Perspective
Emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations, proposed by Albert Bandura, theorists believe we may learn many of our behaviors either through conditioning or by observing and imitating others, focuses on how we and our environment interact
Bandura
Views the person-environment interaction as reciprocal determinism: behavior, internal personal factors and environmental influences all operate as interlocking determinants of each other
Gene-Environment interaction
Our genetically influenced traits evoke certain responses from others, which may nudge us in one direction or another
Biological Influences
genetically determined temperament, autonomic nervous system reactivity, brain activity
Psychological Influences
Learned responses, unconscious thought processes, expectations and interpretations
Social Cultural Influences
Childhood experiences, situational factors, cultural expectations, social support
Assessment center approach
exploits the principle that the best means of predicting behavior is neither a personality test nor an interviewer’s intuition
Psychoanalytic
Freud, Assumptions: Emotional disorders, unresolved sexual and other childhood conflicts, fixation at various developmental stages, defense mechanisms fend off anxiety. Personality: Pleasure seeking impulses(ID), a reality-oriented executive(ego), internalized set of ideals(superego). Assessment methods: Free association, projective tests, dream analysis
Psychodynamic
Adler, Horney, Jung Assumptions: The unconscious and conscious minds interact. Childhood experiences and defense mechanisms are important. Personality: Dynamic interplay of conscious and unconscious motives and conflicts shape our personality
Assessment methods: Projective tests, therapy sessions
Humanistic
Maslow, Rogers, Assumptions: Rather than focus on disorders born of dark conflicts, it’s better to emphasize how healthy people may strive for self-realization
Personality: Our basic needs are met-will strive towards self-actualization
Methods: Questionnaires, therapy, life story approach
Trait
Allport, Costa, H. Eysenck, S.Eysenck, McCrae
Assumptions: We have certain stable and enduring characteristics, influenced by genetic predispositions
Personality: Scientific study of traits has isolated important dimensions of personality, such as Big 5 traits
Methods: Personality Inventories
Social-Cognitive
Bandura, Assumptions: Our traits interact with the social context to produce our behaviors
Personality: Conditional and observational learning interact with cognition to create behavior patterns. Our behavior in one situation is best predicted by considering our past behavior in similar situations
Methods: Observing behavior in realistic situations
Self Serving Bias
a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably, people accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, for sucesses than for failures, most people see themselves better than average
Narcissism
Excessive self love and self focus
Defensive Self-Esteem
Fragile, focusing on sustaining itself, makes failure and criticism feel threatening
Secure Self-Esteem
Less fragile, less contingent on external evaluations
Psychological disorders
Clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognitive, emotion, regulation, behavior- are dysfunctional/maladaptive-interfere with normal day to day life
Yesterday’s “Therapy”
Trephination: Drilling skull holes to release evil spirits, 7,000 to 10,000 years ago
Biopsychosocial Approach
Biological, Psychological, Social-Cultural influences Psychological disorders, emphasizes that mind and body are inseparable
Mental Health Movement
A mental illness needs to be diagnosed on the basis of its symptoms, treated through therapy
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Official list of disorders with list of symptoms, published by American Psychiatric Association, to get health insurance reimbursement in the US, you must be diagnosed with something in the DSM, reflects culture and is informed by science
Historical change
Homosexuality was classified as a mental disorder in the DSM, 1973- declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder
Depression and Loss of Loved One
In prior DSM, there was an exclusion criterion, you could not be diagnosed with MD if a loved one had died within 2 months of interview, Now: you can be diagnosed with MD
Vulnerability Stress Model
Assumes that an individual dispositions combine with environmental stressors to influence psychological disorder
One environment- gene will be expressed but in another it may lie dormant- could be a difference between developing a disorder or not
Schizophrenia
Person talks incoherently, bizarre beliefs, shows either little emotion or inappropriate emotion, socially withdrawn
Diagnostic Classification
Aims to predict disorder’s future course, suggest appropriate treatment, prompt research into its causes
National Institute of Mental Health’s Reasearch Domain Criteria Project
Organizes disorders according to behaviors and brain activity
Suicide Rates
National, racial, gender, trait, age, day of the week + seasonal differences, year-by-year: rising
Urges typically arise when people feel like they don’t belong or are burden to others, feel trapped by a seemingly inescapable situation
Help-listen-connect-protect
Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI)
Sef-reinforcing: relief from intense negative thoughts, distraction of pain, attracts attention, relieve guilt by punishing themselves
Increased vulnerability to mental disorders
Poverty, child abuse, academic failure, chronic pain, personal loss, parental mental illness/substance abuse
Protective factors
Exercise, effective parenting, literacy, high self esteem, problem solving skills
