AP Psychology Unit 3 (1)

Nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

Natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism

Identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but shared a prenatal environment.

Interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanism by which environments can influence genetic expression with a DNA change.

Nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

Sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Cell body

The part of a neuron that contain the nucleus; the cells's life-support center

Dendrites

A neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

Glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

Action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

All-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap/cleft

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

Endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods

Substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption.

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Withdrawal

The physical and mental symptoms that a person has when they suddenly stop or cut back the use of an addictive substance

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

Opioids

depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

Biological psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, blah)

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

Neuroplasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

Hindbrain

consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance

Midbrain

found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information

Forebrain

consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities

Brainstem

The central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enter the skull; is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem's base; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

The forebrain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and helps govern the endocrine system and is linked to emotion and reward

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Frontal lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Occipital lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

Corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

Dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

Parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

Sequential processing

Processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new info or to solve difficult problems

Sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness-as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

Circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed it other body system are active.

Alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

Delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness