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spontaneous generation
The theory that living organisms can arise from nonliving matter.
Louis Pasteur
Scientist known for refuting the theory of spontaneous generation with his swan-neck flask experiment.
Francesco Redi
An early proponent against spontaneous generation; known for his experiments with meat and flies.
John Needham
Supported spontaneous generation through his broth experiments, though later criticized.
Lazzaro Spallanzani
Challenged Needham's results, suggesting broth did not show spontaneous generation due to lack of air.
endosymbiotic theory
The theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from engulfed prokaryotes.
cell theory
The theory that all living organisms are composed of cells and that cells are the basic unit of life.
Robert Koch
Microbiologist who developed postulates to link specific pathogens to specific diseases.
gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria that have a thin peptidoglycan cell wall and an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides.
lipopolysaccharide
A component of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, often serving as an endotoxin.
peptidoglycan
A polymer that composes the bacterial cell wall, providing structural support.
actinobacteria
A phylum of high G+C gram-positive bacteria, many of which are medically important.
Bacilli
A class of low G+C gram-positive bacteria that includes both rod-shaped and coccus-shaped species.
mycoplasma
The simplest prokaryotic cells lacking a cell wall, leading to unique features and pathogenicity.
Cyanobacteria
Photosynthetic bacteria that produce oxygen and are thought to contribute significantly to Earth's atmosphere.
phospholipid bilayer
A structural feature of cell membranes, consisting of two layers of phospholipids.
active transport
The movement of substances across a cell membrane requiring energy, often against a concentration gradient.
pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis where cells engulf liquid nutrients.
endocytosis
The process by which cells internalize substances by engulfing them with the cell membrane.
facilitated diffusion
A transport process that moves molecules across a cell membrane via special transport proteins.
microtubules
Cytoskeletal fibers involved in cell shape, organization, and movement.
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
An organelle involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification processes.
rough endoplasmic reticulum
An organelle decorated with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis.
Golgi apparatus
An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery.
lysosome
An organelle containing digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.
peroxisome
An organelle involved in the breakdown of fatty acids and detoxification of harmful substances.
glucose
A simple sugar that is a primary energy source for cells.
glycolysis
The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH in the process.
Krebs cycle
A series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA.
electron transport chain
A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons to generate ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.
ligase
An enzyme that facilitates the joining of DNA strands together by catalyzing the formation of a phosphodiester bond.
mRNA
Messenger RNA; a single-stranded RNA molecule that conveys genetic information from DNA to the ribosome.
tRNA
Transfer RNA; a type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
rRNA
Ribosomal RNA; the primary component of ribosomes, essential for protein synthesis.
PCR
Polymerase Chain Reaction; a method used to amplify a specific DNA sequence.
recombinant DNA technology
Techniques used to isolate and clone DNA sequences to create modified genetic material.
antibiotic resistance
The ability of bacteria to withstand the effects of drugs that once killed them.
vaccine
A biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease.
pathogen
An organism that causes disease.
endotoxin
A toxin that is a component of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria.
exotoxin
A toxic substance secreted by bacteria into the surrounding environment.
pertussis
Also known as whooping cough; a highly contagious respiratory disease caused by Bordetella pertussis.
septicemia
A serious systemic response to infection characterized by the presence of pathogens in the bloodstream.
bacteremia
The presence of bacteria in the blood.
biofilm
A complex aggregation of microorganisms adhering to a surface.
antigen
A molecule or part of a molecule that is recognized by the immune system.
antibody
A protein produced by B cells that binds to a specific antigen.
immunization
The process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an agent.
helminths
Parasitic worms that can cause diseases in humans.
prion
A misfolded protein that can induce abnormal folding of normal cellular proteins.
zoonotic diseases
Diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans.
antimicrobial drugs
Medications used to treat infections caused by microorganisms.
nosocomial infection
An infection acquired in a hospital or healthcare facility.
infection control
Procedures to prevent the spread of infections in healthcare settings.
pathogenicity
The ability of an organism to cause disease.
treatment,
The management and care of a patient to combat disease or illness.
epidemiology
The study of how diseases spread and can be controlled in populations.
clinical microbiology
The study of microorganisms that cause diseases in humans.
bioinformatics
The application of computer technology to the management of biological information.
insulin
A hormone produced in the pancreas that regulates glucose levels in the blood.
glucose metabolism
The process by which the body breaks down glucose to produce energy.
catalyst
A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed.
mutagenesis
The process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed, resulting in a mutation.
microbiome
The collection of microorganisms living in a particular environment, including the human body.
mucous membrane
A protective lining of tissue that secretes mucus to keep the surfaces moist.
antimicrobial stewardship
Efforts to optimize the use of antimicrobials to combat resistance.
toxicity
The degree to which a substance can cause harm to an organism.
serology
The study of serum, often used in diagnosis of disease via antibodies.
antibody titers
A measure of the concentration of antibodies in the blood.
primary response
The initial immune response to an antigen, characterized by the production of antibodies.
secondary response
A more rapid and effective immune response upon subsequent exposure to the same antigen.
immunotherapy
Treatment that uses the body's immune system to fight diseases, particularly cancer.
nosocomial pathogens
Microorganisms that are acquired in a hospital setting.
antigen-presenting cells
Cells that process and present antigens to T cells for activation.
glycogen,
The storage form of glucose in animals.
bacteriophage
A virus that infects and replicates within bacteria.
bioaccumulation
The process by which organisms accumulate toxic substances in their bodies over time.
debridement
The removal of dead or damaged tissue from a wound to promote healing.
necrosis
The death of cells or tissue due to injury or disease.
sepsis
A life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to infection injures its own tissues.
clinical trial
A research study to test the efficacy and safety of drugs or treatments.
flare-up
A sudden worsening of a medical condition.
pathogenic variants
Genetic changes that contribute to the ability of a pathogen to cause disease.
in vitro
Studies conducted in a controlled environment outside a living organism.
in vivo
Studies conducted in living organisms.
virology
The study of viruses.
microbial ecology
The study of microorganisms in their environments.
quorum sensing
The regulation of gene expression in response to fluctuations in cell-population density.
antigenic variation
The ability of pathogens to change their surface proteins to evade a host's immune response.
