Exam style questions with mark schemes for all content

UNIT ONE: Distinguish between contractility, extensibility and elasticity (3 marks)

1. contractility - ability of muscle tissue to shorten under tension and generate a force

2. extensibility - ability of muscle tissue to lengthen beyond original resting length

3. elasticity - ability of muscle tissue to recoil back to original resting length when stretch is removed

UNIT ONE: Describe the structural features of the hiker’s femurs (6 marks)

1. Spongy bone - located in the end portions of the femur (epiphysis) & light & porous bone structure

2. Compact bone - located in the shaft of the femur (diaphysis) & dense/solid one structure

3. Blood vessels - supply oxygenated blood to femur

4. Articular Cartilage - tissue that coats the 2 ends of the long bone where it will articulate with other bones (reduce friction, absorb shock, limit movement)

5. Medullary Cavity - contains yellow bone marrow (store fat/energy) in hollow region of bone (diaphysis)

6. Periosteum - outer ‘skin’ that wraps around the long bone (for protection/reduce friction of surrounding structures)

UNIT ONE: Outline controllability and atrophy (2 marks)

• Controllability - ability of muscle tissue to receive neural signals from motor neurons, become excited & send signals back to brain about tensions and angles

• Atrophy - a decrease in the size of muscle tissue (inactivity of muscle group)

UNIT: State two functions of the trachea (2 marks)

1. Low resistance pathway for airflow

2. humidify and moistens incoming air

UNIT TWO: Explain the mechanics of inspiration for an athlete completing an aerobic fitness test (4 marks)

1. diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract more forcefully

2. Use of accessory muscles such as deltoids and pectoralis which pull the ribcage further outward and upward than at rest

3. Volume of thoracic volume increases and pressure decreases further than at rest

4. Increase the rate of inhalation (per minute) and depth of inhalation (per breath)

UNIT TWO: discuss the increased maximal oxygen consumption of athletes after a period of endurance training (4 mark)

1. Increase stroke volume (left ventricular volume)

2. Increase cardiac output

3. Increase hemoglobin and myoglobin

4. Increase capillarization of muscles

other:

+Increase in arteriovenous oxygen difference (delivery of oxygen to muscles)

UNIT TWO: Predict the effect of a 100m sprint on a runner’s systolic and diastolic blood pressure (2 marks)

• Sprinting is a dynamic exercise

• Systolic blood pressure will increase in proportion to exercise intensity → sprinting high intensity, therefore increase significantly

• Diastolic blood pressure does not change significantly (may be slight decrease)

UNIT TWO: Explain the redistribution of blood during exercise (3 marks)

• approximately 80-85% of cardiac output to working muscles, 15-20% of cardiac output to non-working muscles

• brain receives approximately the same volume of blood at exercise

• Decrease of cardiac output % to non-essential tissues such as kidneys, skin and bones

• vasodilation of blood vessels to work muscles, vasoconstriction of blood vessels to non-working muscles

other:

• increased blood in working muscles improves delivery of oxygen

  increased blood in working muscles aids waste product removal

UNIT TWO: Describe the extrinsic regulation of SA node as athlete begins a warm up (3 marks)

• Chemoreceptors detect higher blood acidity (higher carbon dioxide concentration)

• Proprioreceptors detect higher joint angles and tendon/muscle movements

—> both send to medulla oblongata to increase SA rate

• Sympathetic nervous system release adrenaline from adrenal glands to increase SA firing/contractility (raise heart rate)

Other:

• baroreceptors detect an increase in blood pressure

UNIT TWO: Describe the cardiovascular adaptions resulting from endurance training (6 marks)

• decrease resting and exercise heart rate

• increase stroke volume (left ventricular volume)

• cardiac hypotrophy (increase size of cardiac muscle)

• increase capillaries around trained muscle (to aid waste removal)

• factors increase arterio-venous oxygen difference

• increased myoglobin and hemoglobin (RBCs)

OTHER:

• more effective blood redistribution

• lower resting blood pressure

UNIT FOUR: Outline features of the 3 different types of muscles found in the body (6 marks)

Skeletal

• mulinucleated cells, striated fibres

• voluntary movement

Smooth

• single nuclus cells, smooth appearance (non-striated fibres)

• involuntary movement

Cardiac

• single nucleus cells, striated

• involuntary movement

OTHER:

• skeletal = attach to bones via tendons e.g., biceps and triceps

• cardiac = cells are connected by branching network, only found in heart

• smooth = found in hollow tubes e.g. digestive system / vascular system

UNIT FOUR: Analyse the structure of slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres (6 marks)

SLOW TWITCH

• high density of capillaries (increase oxygenation)

• large number of mitochondria

• high myoglobin count

FAST TWITCH

• less/lower density of capillaries (decreased oxygenation)

• fewer number of mitochondria

• lower myoglobin count

OTHER

• slow twitch: smaller fibre diameter, higher triglyceride stores, lower ATP/glycogenPC stores

• fast twitch: larger fibre diameter, high levels of glycogen stored, high ATP & PC stores

UNIT FOUR: Describe the characteristics of slow-twitched muscle fibres suited for rower (4 marks)

• high capillary density —> allow large amounts of oxygen and nutrients to be delivered to athlete

• large myoglobin count —> allow for increased oxygen transport from capillaries to muscle cells

• high number of mitochondria —> greater ATP aerobic production

• high triglyceride stores —> greater aerobic capacity for more energy

UNIT FOUR: Explain how ACh intiates skeletal muscle contraction (2 marks)

• ACh binds to post-synaptic receptors (sarcolemma membrane) which increases the membrane permebibily to sodium ions

• sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions into muscle cell

UNIT FOUR: Analyse how capillary and mitochondrial densities affect slow twitch muscle fibres (2 marks)

• high capillary density —> large amounts of oxygen and nutrients to be delivered to muscle during prolonged exercise (high oxygenation)

• high number of mitochondria → high aerobic capacity to produce high number of ATP during prolonged exercise (increased use of oxygen)

UNIT FOUR: Define DOMS (1 mark)

Muscle plain caused by vigorous and unfamiliar exercises, usually 24-72 hours post exercise

OTHER (2 marks)

• inflammatory reactions in muscle associated with structural muscle damage, overstretching and overtraining

UNIT FOUR: Outline components of a RESISTANCE training session in order to reduce DOMS (3 marks)

• start training at a low intensity

• gradual increase of intensity

• undergo prior eccentric exercise

UNIT FOUR: Explain the sliding filament theory after ACh increases muscle membrane permeability (6 marks)

1. calcium ions are released by sarcoplasmic reticulum

2. calcium ions bind to troponin, changing its shape

3. moves tropomyosin blocking complex away from active binding sites on actin

4. myosin head (protrusions) and active site on actin filament form a crossbridge

5. Powerstroke takes place - Z lines are moved closer together as myosin head pulls actin inwards for muscle contraction

6. Myosin head swivels and detaches from actin (cross-bridge broken) and moves further down actin to another active site ‘ratchet mechanism’

OTHER:

• contraction stops when ACh-esterase breaks ACh down

• myosin heads continue the cross bridge until insufficient calcium is present in the muscle cell

UNIT SEVEN: Outline four functions of the skin to maintain health (4 marks)

sensation e.g.,

• skin has nerve endings for sensing pain, temperature and touch & acts as further protection & helps with carrying out daily tasks

regulation of temp e.g.,

• sweating to evaporate heat to the environment when body temperature is too high

protection & immunity e.g.,

• when intact acts a physical protective barrier against external harmful diseases and bacteria to blood stream

Synthesis of vitamin D e.g.,

• chemical in sebum is converted to VD when UV light pathway penetrates it

UNIT 7: Using a sporting example, discuss how the frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebrum assist in an athletes performance (4 marks)

FRONTAL LOBE (2)

• lobe helps with motor planning and speech, thus help soccer players plan their moves and communication with other players

• lobe also associated with reasoning, problem-solving and decision-making, ensuring that all their moves are strategic and well-though out

TEMPORAL LOBE (2)

• auditory association centre, help soccer players process their coach’s calls and other sounds throughout game for further action

• lobe also associated with long-term and visual memory, help remember game rules, faces of their opponents and the field

UNIT 7: Explain the functions of the cerebellum and the parietal love for a gymnastics routine (5 marks)

Cerebellum (3)

• helps to smooth and coordinate sequences of skeletal muscle contractions to produce fluid movements, eg smooths the actions of skills linked together in the routine

• regulates posture and balance through sensory information, eg when performing a bridge, prevent their injury

• evaluates movements initiated by the cerebrum eg evaluating the execution of a forward roll

Parietal (2)

• process somatic sensory input (touch, pain, temperature) such as determine the shape and texture of an object without looking at it eg balls and hoops of routine

• help with body awareness, orientation and navigation eg location of body parts in relation to each other

UNIT 7: Describe the cerebellum during the performance of a dance routine (3 marks)

• helps to smooth and coordinate sequences of skeletal muscle contractions to produce fluid movements, eg smooths the actions of skills in routine

• regulates posture and balance through sensory information e.g when performing a bridge, prevent their injury

• helps the body learn motor skills

UNIT 7: Analyse the functions of the 4 lobes of the cerebrum in 9c (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal) (4 marks)

• frontal = associated with reasoning, decision-making, problem-solving, motor planning and speech

• parietal = somatic sensory centre (pain, touch, temperature) linked to body awareness, navigation and orientation

• occipital = visual association centre (break down complex elements to help with perception)

• temporal = auditory association centre and long-term and visual memory

UNIT 8: Describe the source and role of insulin and glucagon in the body (6 marks)

Insulin (3)

• released by beta cells in the pancreas when high glucose levels is detected

• allows cells (e.g., muscle, fat, liver) to take up more glucose as glycogen (glycogenesis and lipogenesis)

• released into blood stream and affect many other cells (circulating)

Glucagon (3)

• released by alpha cells in pancreas when low glucose levels is detected

• promotes glycogenolysis and lipolysis (breakdown compounds for energy)

• released into the bloodstream and affect many other cells (circulating)

UNIT 8: With reference to specific hormones, discuss the relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland (4 marks)

• hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to maintain homeostasis

• hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland

• hypothalamus sends releasing factors to the anterior lobe to stimulate the release of a more specific hormone eg. GHRH → GH

• hypothalamus sends a hormone to pituitary gland to be released to bloodstream e.g., oxytocin and ADH

UNIT 8: Describe the function of adrenaline during exercise (4 marks)

• amplify and facilitate sympathetic nervous system activity

• stimulate glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose in muscle and liver)

• stimulate lipolysis (breakdown of lipids in adipose tissue and active muscle for energy)

• increase heart rate and contractility of the heart (trigger the SA node) = cardiac output higher

OTHER:

• block glucose storage by the muscles

• increase vasodilation of blood vessels within muscles

UNIT 8: Describe how hormone levels are regulated (4 marks)

• primarily controlled by a negative feedback loop (inhibit initial response)

• controlled by chemoreceptors which detect any change in extracellular fluids in blood stream (chemical control) e.g., rise in glucose levels trigger release of insulin

• controlled by other endocrine glands and tropic hormones e.g., GHRH produced in hypothalamus results in anterior pituitary gland to produce and release GH

• controlled by nervous system e.g., stress stimulate the release of adrenaline

UNIT 8: state the function of the immune system (1 mark)

• to protect the body from infectious disease

UNIT 8: Explain adrenaline regulation immediately prior to a sprint race (4 marks)

• brain triggers adrenal glands to release adrenaline to the bloodstream in response to stress (of the race)

• circulate to target cells across the body such as heart and pancreas

• promotes glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose for energy)

• increase heart rate (trigger SA node) and increase blood pressure

UNIT 8: Outline the function of adrenaline during fasting (2 marks)

• fasting can cause hypoglycaemia (low blood glucose level)

• adrenaline is released by adrenal glands into the blood stream to increase blood glucose level as it promotes glycogenolysis

OTHER:

• long-term = stimulate gluconeogenesis in the muscles and kidneys (energy from lipids and proteins)

UNIT 8: Explain the regulation of adrenaline and insulin levels in the body (6 marks)

Adrenaline (3)

• regulated by the nervous system, which stimulates its release from adrenal glands

• when stress/fear is detected the hormone is released

• can be managed through relaxation techniques such as medication

Insulin (3)

• regulated by the chemical stimulation of beta cells in pancreas

• in response to high blood glucose level detected by receptors

• can be managed by injection

ANOTHER:

• regulated by complex feedback loops

UNIT 8: Outline the characteristics of hormones (2 marks)

• hormones are specific to their receptors (have target cell(s))

• secreted by endocrine glands, usually in short bursts but sometimes over longer periods of time (more permanent responses)

ANOTHER:

• mostly carried by the bloodstream (circulatory hormones)

UNIT 8: Describe how circulating hormone levels are regulated (2 marks)

• regulated by a negative feedback loop mechanism (usually)

• regulated by chemoreceptors which detect changes in extracellular fluids in the bloodstream e.g,., high blood glucose levels stimulate secretion of insulin

ANOTHER:

• regulated by signals from the nervous system e.g., stress detected adrenaline is released

UNIT 8: Identify the location and function of the pituitary gland (3 marks)

• located directly under the hypothalamus

• main endocrine gland influencing other endocrine glands such as growth and temperature functions

• responsible for homeostasis

  OTHER:

  • secretes hormones e.g., ADH, oxytocin and GH

UNIT 8: Explain the regulation of insulin levels in the body (3 marks)

Insulin:

• insulin in secreted by beta cells in the pancreas in response to high blood glucose levels

• high blood glucose is detected by chemoreceptors and receptors in the pancreas

• negative feedback loop with glucagon to maintain blood glucose homeostasis

OTHER:

• insulin stimulates glucose to be stored as glycogen

UNIT 3: Outline the six structures in an animal cell (6 marks)

1. Nucleus - contain the DNA

2. Mitochondria - involved in the aerobic production of ATP

3. Cytoplasm - fluid or matrix that is inside the cell & involved in anaerobic production of ATP

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum - extensive membraneous network involved in protein synthesis

5. Ribosomes - involved in protein synthesis production

6. Cell membrane - outer wall of the cell

OTHERS:

• Golgi apparatus - involved in the processing and packaging of proteins and fats

• lysosome - involved in the digestion and breakdown of food particles, worn out organelles and bacteria

UNIT 3: Discuss the relative contributions of three energy systems for a runner during a 100m sprint and 10,000m race (6 marks)

• both use the ATP-PC systems (for approximately 3-10 seconds)

• 100m will use the ATP-PC systems during middle-end of race, when stored ATP (last 2 seconds) is used up at the start

• 10,000m racer will use the ATP-PC system only at the very start and any time they have a rapid change in movement

• Lactic acid system used for 100m racer at the very end of the race

• Lactic acid system used for 10,000m racer at the start (10 secs-3 minutes) or when pace above 85-90% max HR

• aerobic production has limited contribution during 100m race (mainly anaerobic), but for 10,000m aerobic will be main energy provider after the first few minutes of race/settles into steady pace

UNIT 3: Discuss the oxygen debt process which occurs during recovery after a 10,000m race (4 marks)

• EPOC occurs during exercise recovery to repay oxygen deficit of marathon

fast components (few minutes = alactacid)

• ATP and CP stores are replenished in the muscles

• Myoglobin and hemoglobin are deoxygenated

slow components (few hours = lactacid)

• removal of lactic acid aerobically

• replenish glycogen stores in the liver and muscle

UNIT 3: Describe the aerobic production of ATP before electrons are passed into the electron transport chain (6 marks)

1. Glucose is converted into pyruvate via aerobic glycolysis = 2 ATP

2. As oxygen is present, pyruvate is converted into Acetyl-CoA

3. Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle and yields 2 ATP resynthesised

4. this occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria

5. Acetyl-CoA is broken down into H+, water and carbon dioxide

6. net 4 ATP for glycolysis and Krebs cycle

OTHER:

• fatty acids are catabolised into acetyl-coA, glycerol converted into pyruvate

UNIT 3: Describe the process of energy production and supply to brain cells (4 marks)

• Brain’s main source of energy is glucose and oxygen

• For energy, aerobic cellular respiration occurs

• brain glucose storage is limited (2 minutes worth), thus glucose supply needs to be continuous

• brain uses 0.5 of all sugar energy in the body

OTHER:

• essential nutrients such as glucose and oxygen pass rapidly through the brain blood barrier

UNIT 3: Explain how adenosine can gain or lose a phosphate molecule in a runner during the first three minutes of a training run (6 marks)

• store ATP lose a phosphate molecule to form ADP, which releases energy for approximately 3 seconds

Gain phosphate molecules anaerobically:

1. ATP-PC system

• creatine phosphate broken down by creatine kinase reaction for resynthesis of ATP through phosphorylation (phosphate group broken off)

• 1 CP molecule = 1 ATP

• predominate for 3-10 seconds

1. Lactic system

• breakdown of glucose to pyruvate through glycolysis

• 1 glucose = 2 ATP

• predominate for 10 seconds-3 minutes

UNIT 3: Outline the process of glycogenolysis (5 marks)

• glycogen is broken down into glucose (a catabolic reaction, which releases energy)

• glucagon acts on liver, where glycogen is stored

• glucagon acts on muscles, where glycogen is stored —> muscles take up glucose for energy production

• insulin inhibits glycogenolysis

• adrenaline is released during the fight or flight system, which also stimulates glycogenolysis to raise glucose levels

• involves a hydrolysis reaction

UNIT 3: Describe the recommended relative contribution of macronutrients in a healthy balanced diet (5 marks)

• recommendations depend on factors such as age, weight, height, country and fitness level

• try to keep intake of saturated/solid fats as low as possible, as they raise cholesterol

• ensure adequate water consumption

• approximately 50-60% of carbohydrates, 1760 KJ per 100g

• approximately 10-15% of proteins (smaller than carbs), 1720 KJ per 100g

• approximately less than 30% fats (smaller intake), 4000KJ per 100g

UNIT 9: Discuss the factors which may cause peripheral fatigue in a sprinter (5 marks)

1. fatigue is perceived differently by individual athletes and may depend on factors such as age and type of exercise carried out

2. Depletion of creatine phosphate stores

3. Depletion of ATP stores

4. Build up of by-products such as lactic acid (H+ ions and lactate)

5. diet and hydration status of athlete

UNIT 9: Explain the physiological causes of peripheral fatigue in endurance activities (3 marks)

1. Depletion of muscle and live glycogen stores (ATP resynthesis is slower)

2. Depletion of acetylcholine (reduce ability of action potential to pass to muscle fibre)

3. Depletion of calcium ions (ability of muscle fibre to contract effectively)

OTHER:

• electrolyte loss occurs through sweating, which can lead to cramp ✔

• dehydration can occur due to loss of essential fluids used to help with temperature regulation ✔

• overheating can impair muscle function ✔

UNIT 9: Discuss the changes of peripheral fatigue which occur during endurance running (4 marks)

1. Depletion of glycogen stores in muscle and livers (resynthesis slower)

2. depletion of acetylcholine = ability of AP to pass to muscle fibre

3. depletion of calcium ions = ability for muscle fibre to contract

4. electrolyte loss due to sweating = cramp

OTHER:

• dehydration due to sweating

• overheating = impair muscle function

UNIT 9: Outline the recovery techniques from fatigue following the completion of a half-marathon (4 marks)

1. eat recovery foods rich in CHO and protein

2. stretching: a combination of static and dynamic stretching

3. rest allows the muscle tissue to repair and liver and muscle glycogen stores to recover

4. ice baths have been shown to improve recovery / reduce core temperature

UNIT 2: Describe the process of increased gaseous exchange at the alveoli during exercise (4 marks)

1. Alveoli are folded, thus larger surface area increases diffusion rate

2. The capillary and alveoli walls are 1 cell thick, thus quick diffusion that does not require ATP

3. O2 move from a high to low partial pressure

4. O2 moves from the lungs/ alveoli to the pulmonary capillaries

UNIT 4: analyse how capillary and mitochondrial densities affect slow twitch (type I) muscle fibres

• Type I have high capillarity and mitochondrial densities

• thus: the muscle fibres have high oxidative capacity (increased oxygenation) and high fatigue resistance for prolonged exercise energy

Unit 2: Describe how cardiovascular drift takes place (3 marks)

• thermoregulation response due to prolonged exercise in hot conditions which increased the core body temperature

• blood flow to skin increases (vasodilation) and water is lost via sweating

• plasma decreases and thus the viscosity of blood increases

• reduction in stroke volume places demand on heart rate to increase to maintain cardiac output

Unit 2: Outline the chemical control of ventilation during exercise (3 marks)

• controlled by chemoreceptors, which detect a change in CO2 blood content

• Co2 content increases, it detects the higher acidity of blood

• medulla oblongata receives signals from the receptors which signal to ventilatory muscles to contract more forcefully

• increase the depth and rate of breathing

UNIT 3: Trained endurance cyclists use fat stores efficiently. Outline the breakdown of fatty acids by a cyclist during a long-distance race (2 marks)

• Fatty acids are broken down by beta-oxidation

• catabolised int Acetyl-CoA

• Fatty acids produce more electrons than glucose, can produce greater number of ATP molecules

• 100-150 ATP

UNIT 3: Describe the strengths of the ATP-CP system with regard to the re-synthesis during a 50m sprint (4 marks)

• quickest resynthesis, 1 CP = 1 ATP, thus quick recovery

• CP molecules are stored in skeletal muscles, thus readily available

• does not produce fatiguing by-products such as lactic acid

• does not require oxygen (anaerobic)

UNIT 8: outline one role of hormones (1 mark)

• hormones act on specific target cells (their receptors) to coordinate different bodily functions

UNIT 7: Describe the phenomenon of oxygen deficit (3 marks)

• deficit is calculated as the difference between oxygen required for given rate or work and oxygen actually consumed

• deficit takes place during the initial stages of exercise

• it is repaired after exercise is finished

++ oxygen transport system is not immediately able to supply the needed quantity of oxygen to active muscles

UNIT 1: Outline one type of muscle tissue (2 marks)

• voluntary muscle contractions controlled by nerve impulses

• attach to bones/skeletal system via tendons

• striated in appearance

UNIT 3: Describe how 3 energy systems contribute to ATP production during an 800m run (6 marks)

ATP-CP system:

• initial start of the race or when the athletes suddenly changes their pace (end), 1 PC = 1 ATP = breakdown of creatine phosphate

• can only last 3-10seconds (short-bursts)

Lactic acid system:

• 1 glucose molecule = 2 ATP, anaerobic glycolysis

• will be predominate after ATP-CP system so 3secs-3 minutes (help with strong changes in pace/sprint)

Aerobic system:

• 1 glucose molecule = 36-38 ATP with system, aerobic glycolysis

• used when athletes gets into pace/most of race (after few minutes)

UNIT 8: Explain the relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland with reference to specific effective bodily functions (4 marks)

• Hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together through feedback loop to maintain homeostasis of bodily functions

• hypothalamus controls and sends messages to pituitary gland

• hypothalamus secretes releasing factors (neurohormones) such as GHRH to anterior P gland, which produce more specific hormone such as GH (regulate growth)

• hypothalamus secretes hormones to posterior P gland to secrete to blod stream such as oxytocin and ADH (regulate water/blood pressure)

UNIT 2: Describe the pathway of electrical impulse during the excitation of the heart muscle (4 marks)

• pacemaker/SA node fires initiate electrical impulse;

• impulse travels across the atria walls;

• impulse arrives at the AV node <base of the right atrium>;

• impulse passes from the AV node down to the bundle of His <through the septum>;

• passes down the <left and right> bundle branches <to the apex of the heart>;

• travels up through the Purkinje fibres <to stimulate the rest of the ventricles>;

UNIT 3: Explain the difference in dietary recommendations for a runner of a marathon training and a sedentary individual both with healthy body mass index (BMI) (5 marks)

marathon runner:

• use more calories <than sedentary individuals> and therefore are recommended to have a higher calorie intake/ energy intake

• has a high training volume and therefore have a much higher recommendation for carbohydrate intake;

• need some fat stores and are recommended a <slight> increase in fat consumption;

• need to recover after activity and are recommended a <slightly> higher protein intake;

• thermoregulate more and are recommended to have a higher water/ electrolyte intake;

other:

• greater mineral and vitamin intake for bone strength/blood cell production/growth;

UNIT 2: Outline the nervous control and mechanics of inspiration during exercise (6 marks)

Neural

• increase in acidity/CO₂ concentration is detected by <chemo>receptors

• proprio>receptors detect an increase in muscle movement

• nerve impulses are sent via the sympathetic nervous system to increase rate and depth of breathing

Mechanics

• external intercostal muscles contract more forcefully

• ribs move upwards and outwards further

• diaphragm contracts and flattens

• strenuous exercise stimulates the use of accessory muscles

• thoracic cavity volume increases further; more air rushes into lungs as pressure of thoracic cavity decreases further

**4 max for each

UNIT 7: Outline one role of the brain stem and one role of the diencephalon during a training session (2 marks)

• brain stem is involved in cardiovascular and respiratory control e.g., maintain heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac output of athlete

• diencephalon e.g., thalamus is involved in processing senses (except smell) to the cerebral cortex —> athlete adopt to her environment

UNIT 2: Explain the role of ventilatory muscles during inspiration when running a 10km race (4 marks)

• External intercostal muscles will contract more forcefully

• Diaphragm will contract more forcefully and flatten

• accessory muscles e.g., deltoids and pectoralis will pull ribcage further upward and outward

• thoracic volume will increase further and pressure will drop further than at rest

**rate (per min) and depth (per breath) of breathing increases

UNIT 3: Giving an example, outline the characteristics of saturated fatty acids (3 marks)

• fatty acids (saturated) do not have any double bonds between their carbons, very saturated with H atoms

• Solid at room temperature - ‘solid fats’

• raise cholesterole/bad for heath —> recommend to consume small amounts

ex: dairy products e.g., butter and tropical oils (palm and coconut oil)

UNIT 10: Describe four effects of surface drag on a cyclist (4 marks)

• the more air layers that are caught on the surface of the cyclist, the greater the drag

• the greater drag, the slower the cyclist will go

• to minimise surface drag, cyclists could wear a full body tight-fitting skin suit or shave their body

• to minimise surface drag, a cyclist could cycle behind a teammate (drafting)

UNIT 13: Identify four effects on the immune system of training for a marathon (4 marks)

decrease in innate and adaptive immune functions✔

due to increases in levels of cortisol and adrenaline over long periods ✔

low concentrations of lymphocytes ✔

leucocytes may drop compared to sedentary individuals ✔

UNIT 13: Outline strategies a marathon runner could use to reduce the risk of infection (3 marks)

• ensure that the athlete achieves sufficient sleep

• maintain a varied diet providing suitable vitamins and minerals

• athlete maintains good personal hygiene

UNIT 13: Discuss how exercise affects susceptibility to infectious disease in a highly-trained athlete (5 marks)

the relationship can be seen as a J curve ✔ (provide diagram)

moderate exercise, however, is associated with reduced susceptibility to infection ✔

highly-trained athletes are more susceptible to infections than their sedentary peers ✔

highly-trained athletes have lower leucocyte numbers caused by the stress of the exercise ✔

highly trained athletes can experience inflammation caused by muscle damage ✔

athletes have greater exposure to airborne bacteria and viruses because of an increased rate and depth of breathing ✔

UNIT 13: Using an example, outline the function of platelets in sports (2 marks)

• in AFL, a player is cut by the studs of another player’s boots during a tackle

• platelets clot the blood via plug formation to prevent blood loss & limit pathogens entering the body

UNIT 13: describe two functions of the skin (4 marks)

Regulation of body temperature such as during high temperature:

• vasodilation of blood vessels near the skin to release heat

• production of sweat to help evaporate heat for heat loss

Protection and immunity:

• protective barrier to pathogens and physical trauma

• reduce harmful effects of radiation

other:

Sensation: contains nerves that relay information about the environment, such as heat, cold and sensing touch or pain ✔ Excretion: waste material, such as urea / uric acid / water / ammonia through sweat ✔ Synthesis of vitamin D: organic chemical within the skin reacts with UVB ultraviolet light to synthesize vitamin D ✔ hairs erect to trap air to reduce heat loss ✔ vasoconstriction of blood vessels to the skin to conserve heat

UNIT 13: Outline the effects of intense and long-term training on the immune system (3 marks)

• causes increases in levels of cortisol / adrenaline ✔

• suppresses the immune system (innate and adaptive functions)

• leucocyte numbers drop «compared to sedentary people» ✔

OTHER:

can cause tissue damage ✔ leads to inflammation ✔

UNIT 13: Compare and contrast the susceptibility to disease for individuals who are sedentary, moderately active or elite athletes (2 marks)

• J curve diagram

• sedentary are more susceptible than moderately active✔

• sedentary are less susceptible than elite athletes ✔

• moderately active is less susceptible than elite athletes ✔

UNIT 13: Explain why some individuals are more susceptible to infections than others, referring to the relationship ( 2marks)

• due to lower leucocyte numbers caused by the stress of the «intense» exercise ✔

• inflammation caused by muscle damage ✔

• «greater» exposure to «airborne» bacteria / viruses because of an increased rate / depth of breathing ✔

UNIT 13: An elite athlete is completing a one‐year intensive training programme in preparation for a triathlon competition. Outline the changes in the athlete’s cortisol levels and their risk of infection as a result of the training. [2 marks]

• at the end of the training session, cortisol levels will be raised (1)

• sustained increases in cortisol levels will suppress the immune system (1)

• risk of infection will therefore increase (1)

UNIT 13: A cyclist is training for the ultra-distance IncaDivide race across Ecuador and Peru. Explain the effect of the training load on the cyclist’s
susceptibility to infection. [5 marks]

• moderate exercise is associated with reduced susceptibility to infection

• athletes who have high training loads may be more susceptible to infection

• overtraining can lead to the same susceptibility to infection as someone who is sedentary

  impacts of high training loads (outline 3):

• high training loads lead to greater exposure to airborne bacteria and viruses because of an increased rate and depth of breathing;

• high training loads can result in more inflammation <in respiratory tract>;

  this makes body more susceptible to respiratory tract infections

• high training loads can lead to high levels of cortisol/adrenaline fatigue which can lead to the suppression of the immune system

• high training loads can lower leucocyte numbers; leucocytes are required to help fight infection

UNIT 2: Explain the mechanism of blood redistribution during a long-distance cycle ride [5 marks]

• cardiac output is redirected to working muscles

• vasodilation of arterioles to working muscles

• vasoconstriction of arterioles to non-active tissue/muscle

• increased in acidity causes vasodilation in skeletal muscles

• enhanced venous return in large muscle groups due to muscular and respiratory pumps

UNIT 1: An individual medley race requires a swimmer to swim the four main competitive strokes (butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle). Using examples, outline five types of movements of synovial joints during an individual medley race [5 marks]

1. circumduction - the circling of a body segment at a joint e.g., the arm action at the shoulder during butterfly

2. plantar flexion - the extension of the ankle joint towards the plantar surface e.g., the ankle during freestyle swimming whilst kicking/pushing off the wall

3. extension - increase of angle at the joint e.g., when arms and legs during a streamlined position when swimmer kicks of the wall

4. abduction - movement of limb away from the midline e.g., the movement of legs at the hip kicking out in breaststroke

5. rotation - movement of a bone around a central axis e.g., head turns to breath in freestyle

6. flexion - decrease in angle at the joint e.g., recovery phrase of the elbow joint in freestyle

UNIT 13: Explain why elite athletes are generally more susceptible to infection than sedentary individuals [2 marks]

• greater exposure to airborne bacteria and viruses because of an increased rate and depth of breathing

• high levels of stress hormones reduce leucocyte numbers therefore reducing the ability to fight infection when exposed/supress the immune system

OTHER:

• regular heavy training loads performed by elite athletes can lead to a rise in cortisol levels / reduction in adrenaline levels

• inflammatory response to muscle damage can become overactive due to stress hormones / levels of training;

• high levels of stress hormones can cause an overactive or <severely> suppress inflammation in response to infection

UNIT 8/3: Explain how a complex feedback loop regulates blood glucose [3 marks]

• a negative feedback loop counteracts a change to return blood glucose levels to an acceptable level for the body (homeostasis)

• high blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin by the pancreas, which promotes glucose uptake/glycogenesis to lower blood sugar levels

• low blood glucose stimulate the release of glucagon by the pancreas, which promotes glycogenolysis to increase blood sugar levels

UNIT 2: Explain the phenomenon of cardiovascular drift and one method of reducing it. [5 marks]

• occurs during prolonged submaximal aerobic exercise

• Reduction in blood (plasma) volume due to sweating (due to elevated body temperature)

• reduction in blood volume, increases the blood viscosity

• This decreases stroke volume, and places demand on heart rate (to increase) to maintain cardiac output

• a prevention is to stay hydrated to maintain blood viscosity

other preventions:

• decrease exercise intensity or exercise during cooler part of the day

UNIT 4: A table-tennis ball is hit with topspin. Apply the Bernoulli principle to the projectile motion of the ball [4 marks]

• there is an inverse relationship between air flow velocity and air pressure in the BP

• ball with topspin causes high pressure at the top of the ball & low pressure at the bottom of the ball

• the ball will move towards the low pressure area accorded to BP, and therefore will move downwards

• ball will drop on the table sooner (than with no spin or backspin), reducing the distance the ball travels before hitting the table

+++ increased air velocity at the bottom of the ball and decreased air velocity at the top of the ball

UNIT 3: Describe the resynthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the lactic acid (anaerobic glycolysis) system [4 marks]

• glucose is converted into pyruvate through anaerobic glycolysis

• there is no oxygen present, so pyruvate is converted into lactic acid (H+ ions + lactate)

• low yield 1 glucose molecule produces 2 net ATP

• system uses glycogen/glucose as a fuel force

• rapidly resynthesises ATP, last for 10 seconds to a few minutes

UNIT 13: Outline how the body responds when an athlete’s skin is exposed to injury or infection [4 marks]

• physical barriers e.g, mucous secretions and increase epithelial linings

• chemical e.g., change pH of bodily fluids such as cortisol and adrenaline

• increased leucocytes (WBCs) that ingest and fight pathogens

• lymphocytes produce antibodies that fight the antigen

other:

• inflammation to protect infected area/produce heat/swelling/blood flow

• clotting by platelets to reduce blood loss & repair physical barrier

UNIT 7: Explain the function of the diencephalon [6 marks]

• thalamus, epithalamus and hypothalamus form the diencephalon

  thalamus:

• sensory input (except smell) received from receptors is relayed through the thalamus to the cerebral cortex for motor control

• plays a role in awareness and regulation of sleeping

  hypothalamus:

• maintains homeostasis by controlling the internal environment through neuroendocrine control

• control automatic nervous system/ANS e.g., heart rate, respiration, digestion

  epithalamus:

• circadian rhythms are controlled by the release of melatonin from pineal gland in epithalamus

UNIT 2: Analyse oxygen deficit [5 marks]

• deficit is calculated as the difference between the oxygen required for a given rate of work and oxygen actually consumed

• deficit takes place during the initial stages of exercise

• oxygen transport system is not immediately able to supply the needed quantity of oxygen to the active muscles

• oxygen consumption requires several minutes before a homeostatic level is reached (aerobic system meets he demands)

OTHER:

• the greater the intensity, the greater the oxygen deficit

• deficit is repaid during the rest period

• it can be minimised by doing a suitable warm up

• aerobically trained individuals have a smaller deficit/EPOC than compared to untrained individual at the same intensity

UNIT 13: Identify three strategies for minimizing risk from infection among athletes in an Olympic Village [3 marks]

• ensure athlete achieve sufficient sleep

• maintain good personal hygiene

• minimise close contact with infectious individual

• maintain a varied diet providing suitable vitamins and minerals

• maintain fluid/water levels

• drink pathogen free water

• do not train during illness

• ensure athlete plans sufficient recovery within their training (not overtraining)

UNIT 4: Outline three methods used to monitor exercise intensity [6 marks]

target heart rate and oxygen uptake relationship:

• use of heart rate based upon its linear relationship with oxygen uptake (percentage of maximal oxygen uptake)

training heart zone/rate

• training range = HR max x lower limit % intensity to HR max x upper limit % intensity

  e.g., 220-17 = 203, 203 x (), 203 x ()

karvonen method

• calculates the heart rate reserve to calculate the target heart rate

• training HR = (HR max - HR rest) x % intensity + HR rest

• ((220-17)-60) x %)+ 60

rating of perceived exertion

• quantified self-identified levels of exertion

• Borgs, OMNI, CERT scale

UNIT 13: Identify three reasons why athletes who overtrain may be more susceptible to infection [3 marks]

• Lower leucocyte numbers <caused by the stress of exercise >

• inflammation caused by muscle damage

• greater exposure to airborne bacteria and viruses <because of an increased rate and depth of breathing>

UNIT 8: Explain how the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland. [6 marks]

• hypothalamus receives feedback from the body regarding homeostasis

• pituitary and hypothalamus are major endocrine organs

• hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland to maintain homeostasis/growth/water balance/reproduction/temperature

• neurohormones are delivered through the portal vessel

• neurohormones such as GHRH and somatostatin are released from the hypothalamus; stimulate the pituitary gland (anterior lobe) releases hormones such as GH into surrounding capillaries after under the regulation of the hypothalamus

• nerve impulses from the hypothalamus stimulate the pituitary gland

• pituitary gland (posterior lobe) secrets hormones e.g. , ADH and oxytocin produced from hypothalamus

UNIT 13: List two mechanisms that the body uses in response to an infection (2 marks)

the skin / epithelial linings ✔ mucus ✔
enzymes ✔
macrophages ✔

platelets ✔ phagocytes/leucocytes✔
pH of bodily fluids ✔
hormones ✔
soluble factors e.g. cytokines ✔ lymphocytes/antibodies ✔ inflammation ✔

UNIT 13: Discuss the relationship shown in the following graph. [2 marks]

moderate volume of exercise appears to decrease the risk of infections compared to not exercising ✔

very high volume of exercise increases the risk higher than not exercising at all ✔

high risk of infection at high volume of exercise can be caused by increased depth and rate of breathing during intense training/lowered leucocyte levels/inflammation ✔

UNIT 6: Outline flexibility training for a gymnast (1 mark)

stretching activities eg static/dynamic/ballistic/PNF stretches *aimed to increase range of joint movement

UNIT 13: Outline mechanisms the gymnast’s body uses in response to damage from a fall off the beam [5 marks]

Skin:

• mucosal secretions eg those found in the respiratory tract which trap bacteria and small particles

• epithelial linings have cilia which help to reduce foreign bodies entering the body

• provides a barrier from physical or chemical damage to the internal organ

• pH of bodily fluids help to destroy pathogens eg low pH within the stomach

Hormones and other soluble factors:

• inflammation when tissues are injured and histamine is released from the blood to cause swelling (isolate the foreign substance)

• leucocytes (WBCs) that fight disease eg phagocytes consume germs and dead/damaged cells

• clotting by platelets in the blood help to provide a protective layer around a wound/damage to tissue

• an antibody is a protein produced by the body's immune system when it detects harmful substances, called antigens

• B lymphocytes produce antibodies & T lymphocytes attack antigens directly

UNIT 4: The gymnast is performing a routine on the beam. Explain the influence of the position of the centre of mass on stability [5 marks]

• as the body moves the COM repositions itself to represent the point where the mass is concentrated (e.g., when gymnastic is performing routine)

• COM can move outside of the body depending on the type of position e.g., performing high-skilled kicks and flips on the beam

• to maintain balance the gymnast must keep their COM above and closer to the base of support

• a gymnast can lower their COM to increase their stability on the beam

• by widening the base of support by adding more points of contact the COM is more likely to remain balanced (prevent falls off beam)

UNIT 13: Identify one effect on the immune system of training for a marathon [1 mark]

decrease in innate and adaptive immune functions✔
due to increases in levels of cortisol and adrenaline over long periods ✔

low concentrations of lymphocytes ✔
leucocytes may drop compared to sedentary individuals ✔

UNIT 6: Suggest how an aerobic 1500 m endurance athlete uses the principles of overload [4 marks]

• overload is the increase of stress on the body during exercise training to bring about desired adaptations

• frequency, intensity, time and type are principles of overload

• Frequency example e.g., 1500 m athlete could increase their frequency of training to 4 times a week instead of 3

• Intensity example e.g., 1500 m athlete could change from working at 70 % MHR to 75 % MHR

UNIT 6: . Evaluate the multistage fitness test as a method of assessing aerobic capacity in a long-distance runner [6 marks]

Strengths: Sub Max [3]
— the test has validity for predicting VO2 max/ assessing aerobic capacity✔

— a number of participants can be assessed simultaneously ✔

— relatively limited cost/equipment required ✔
— relatively easy to administer ✔

Limitations: Sub Max [3]
— due to the regular turning required it is more specific to games-based athletes✔

— requires motivation of athletes to reach volitional exhaustion ✔
— maximal test can place participants at risk ✔

— administrators need to ensure cheating doesn’t occur/follow strict protocol ✔

UNIT 2: Describe the path taken by blood from the right ventricle to the left ventricle (4 marks)

• from the right ventricle blood travels through the pulmonary valve into pulmonary artery ✔

• from pulmonary artery blood travels to the lungs «gets oxygenated» and back to the heart via pulmonary vein ✔

• from pulmonary vein blood enters the left atrium ✔

• from left atrium blood travels to left ventricle «via bicuspid valve» ✔

UNIT 2: Distinguish how cardiac output, stroke volume and resting heart rate would differ between trained and untrained women during exercise [3 marks]

untrained

stroke volume = lower

heart rate = higher

cardiac output = lower

trained

stroke volume = higher

heart rate = lower

cardiac output = higher

UNIT 13: Discuss how exercise affects susceptibility to infectious disease in a highly-trained athlete [5 marks]

the relationship can be seen as a J curve ✔

highly-trained athletes are more susceptible to infections than their sedentary peers ✔

highly-trained athletes have lower leucocyte numbers caused by the stress of the exercise ✔

+release cortisol (stress hormone/immunosuppressive)

highly trained athletes can experience overactive inflammation caused by muscle damage ✔

athletes have greater exposure to airborne bacteria and viruses because of an increased rate and depth of breathing ✔

moderate exercise, however, is associated with reduced susceptibility to infection ✔