Philosphy (Ethics) - Exam 1

What are the 3 branches of ethics?

Value theory, Normative Ethics, Metaethics

Value Theory

explores the nature of moral principles and judgments ; asks ‘What is the good life? What is worth pursuing for its own sake? How do we improve our lot in life?”

Normative Ethics

the branch of philosophy that seeks to establish rules and guidelines, concerned with what we ought to do, including theories like utilitarianism and deontology

Metaethics

the study of status, foundations and scope of moral values, properties and words ; applies ethical theories to real world-life dilemmas

Consequentialism

a moral theory holding that the rightness of actions depends only on their consequences ; the morally right act produces the best overall results

Act-Consequentialism

the view that each individual act should be assessed by whether it yields the greatest net good

Rule-Consequentialism

the view that we should follow rules that, if generally adopted, would produce the best outcomes

Utility / Well-being

the total amount of good or happiness produced (or suffering avoided) by an action or rule

Optimific outcome

the action with the highest overall balance of good over bad

Intrinsic good

something valuable in and of itself, have inherent value, good for all persons in and of itself

Examples of intrinsic good

happiness, love, friendship

Instrumental good

something that derives its value from its ability to reach other goals, or lead to something else that’s good 

Examples of instrumental good

money → leads to sustaining self or buying things that make you happy

also vacation, medicine, etc.

What is ethical relativism?

the theory that moral truths depend on cultural or individual standards, with no universal moral truths

Ethical Objectivism

the view that some moral truths are valid for everyone, regardless of culture or opinion

Moral Isolationism 

Mary Midgley’s term for the view that one cannot judge the practices of other cultures

Cultural Relativism

the view that moral rightness depends on the norms of one’s culture

Demandigness Objection

a criticism of consequentialism that it asks too much moral sacrifice from individuals

Injustice Objection

a criticism that consequentialism may permit unjust acts if they maximize well-being

Hedonism 

a theory of value holding that pleasure and the absence of pain are the only intrinsic good

Desire Satisfaction Theory

a good life consists in the satisfaction of one’s informed desires

Objective List Theory

a theory stating that certain goods (knowledge, love, virtue) are good for us whether we want them or not

Validity

how well the premises support the conclusion

Soundness

an argument is sound if it is valid and its premises are actually true

Libertarianism (moral/political)

a view emphasizing individual freedom and autonomy, constrained only by the duty to not harm others

Summarize Midgley’s critique of moral isolationism

-If we are not allowed to judge other cultures, we also can’t praise them.

-While we should understand a culture before judging it, complete understanding is not necessary. 

-If moral isolationism were true, it would paralyze moral thought. It would mean no moral reform could ever occur, even within one’s own culture, since critique is an essential part of progress and cultures evolve. 

-Cultures are not ‘sealed units’ but rather, interconnected.

Explain ethical relativism and why Shafer-Landau argues against it

Moral truths are not objective or universal, relative to culture/societal norms or individual’s preference/beliefs ; Shafer-Landau disagrees saying that moral objectivism is needed because otherwise ethical relativism hinders societal progress, undermines criticism of cultures and moral faliability is denied

Compare consequentialism, relativism, and objectivism.

Consequentialism - Morality of an action is dependent on the outcomes

Relativism - Morality varies and is relevant to culture or individual 

Objectivism - Morality is objective, independent of opinion

State a criticism of each (consequentialism, relativism, and objectivism).

Consequentialism - can justify morally questionable actions if they lead to good outcomes (e.g lying, cheating, or sacrificing one person to save many persons)

Relativism - undermines moral criticism of other cultures (e.g genocide, mutilation, human sacrifice if they are accepted by other cultures can’t be critiqued)

Objectivism - can lead to imposing one’s beliefs or values on another

Discuss the demanding-ness and injustice objections to consequentialism 

Consequentialism demands too much of moral agents, asking people to constantly act in ways that maximize overall good, often at great personal cost. 

Consequentialism can justify immoral or unjust actions if they lead to good consequences, treating justice, rights, and fairness as secondary to overall outcomes

Consequentialism Steps

1. Identify what is ‘intrinsically good’ 

2. Identify what is ‘intrinsically bad’ 

3. Look at all options 

4. Evaluate what is GOOD and what is BAD 

5. Pick ”X” - as optimal result/best option

Attractions of Utilitarianism

• Impartiality- is attractive to some ppl cuz it doesn't matter intentions or who you are 

• Tells us that the welfare of each person is equally morally invaluable (equal levels of pleasures or experiences are equal all over in each person) 

• Moral flexibility- can incorporate variety of moral theories 

• Some moral theories are absolutist in nature like you MUST do this you MUST do that, but not utilitarians 

What is the principle of utility? And what are 2 misunderstandings associated with it?

1  - To benefit ppl we must benefit greatest number of ppl!

But that is not the case cuz imagine there was a task to distribute $1000 to a room of 20 people. 19/20 in the room are billionaires w 1 poor person on the verge of starvation. Distributing $1000 evenly among those 19/20 is unjust even if it benefits the greatest number of people. 

2 – We must alw choose action that creates greatest amt of happiness...

We don’t automatically have to favor the first... correct interpretation is considering what creates greatest amt of net happiness OVER unhappiness

Utilitarian theory

can solve our conflicts if we have enough information and understand the consequences of our actions, it claims there is always an “optimal option” won’t eliminate suffering, but we can maximize happiness with impartial conflict-resolution 

Downside of Utilitarianism

• Nothing is inherently right or wrong for the moral utilitarian, but this IS a problem for other ppl (e.g torturing a child to death may save the entire world BUT in doing so, you have done something morally wrong... but the utilitarian wouldn’t care) 

• Utilitarianism doesn't only permit injustice but it can require it, not caring if its unjust 

How to defeat an argument

show one of the premises of an argument is false. You can defeat an argument by showing one of the reasons that lead to the argument is false or there is a flaw in reasoning

Nihilism

questions or denies the existence of objective meaning, purpose, or inherent value in life

Moral nihilism vs. Cultural relativism

nihlist says that world contains no moral features while the relativist says world contains moral features but they’re relative to culture 

Why is cultural relativism attractive?

promotes toleration

Why is hedonism attractive?

1) versatility/individualism 2) personal authority 3) misery clearly hampers a good life while happiness improves it

What do hedonists claim is always intrinsically valuable?

attitudinal pleasure - happiness/enjoyment ; because this is the absence of pain

What makes an argument? What makes it a good one?

premises (reasons) + conclusion ; must be both truthful and logical

Moral skepticism 

denial of objective moral standards, morality lacks any authority

What do relativists believe about ethical objectivism?

They generally believe it is false — there are objective, universal moral standard; morality is instead dependent on cultural, social, or individual perspectives (complete contradiction to the ethical objectivism which states that some moral values are absolute independent of human belief)

What are the two forms of moral skepticism?

1) moral nihilism 2) ethical relativism

What are the two kinds of ethical relativism?

1) cultural relativism 2) individual relativism

If subjectivism is correct, what is the ultimate moral standard/rule?

It is personal opinion/belief