Intro to Psych Chapters

What is psychology?

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.

What are the five pillars of psychology?

Biological, Cognitive, Developmental, Social & Personality, Mental & Physical Health.

Who is considered the founder of modern psychology?

Wilhelm Wundt.

What is structuralism?

An approach that analyzes the parts of mental experience using introspection.

What is functionalism?

An approach that studies the purpose of behavior and mental processes.

What is behaviorism?

The study of observable behavior, ignoring mental processes.

What is the psychodynamic approach?

Focuses on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences.

What is humanistic psychology?

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and self-acceptance.

What does it mean that psychology is empirical?

It relies on systematic observation and measurable evidence.

What does the APA stand for?

American Psychological Association.

What is a hypothesis?

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

What is a theory?

An organized explanation of observations that predicts future behavior.

What is operationalization?

Defining abstract constructs in measurable terms.

What is the independent variable?

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

What is the dependent variable?

The variable being measured as the outcome.

What is random assignment?

Placing participants into groups by chance to reduce bias.

What is random sampling?

Selecting participants so everyone has an equal chance of being chosen.

What is correlation?

A measure of how two variables move together.

What does correlation not equal?

Causation.

What are the three types of validity?

Construct, internal, and external validity.

What is reliability?

The consistency of measurement results over time.

What is informed consent?

When participants agree to a study with full knowledge of its purpose and risks.

What is the central nervous system composed of?

The brain and spinal cord.

What is the peripheral nervous system?

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

What is the somatic nervous system?

Controls voluntary muscle movement and sensory input.

What is the autonomic nervous system?

Controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.

What does the sympathetic nervous system do?

Activates fight-or-flight responses.

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?

Promotes rest and digestion.

What are neurons?

Cells that transmit information in the nervous system.

What are dendrites?

Branches that receive signals from other neurons.

What is the axon?

The long fiber that transmits impulses away from the neuron’s cell body.

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

What does dopamine do?

Regulates movement, motivation, and reward.

What does serotonin do?

Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

What is the cerebellum responsible for?

Balance, coordination, and timing.

What does the amygdala control?

Fear and aggression.

What does the hippocampus control?

Memory formation.

What does the hypothalamus regulate?

Homeostasis, hunger, and sexual behavior.

What is the corpus callosum?

The band of fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.

What is neuroplasticity?

The brain’s ability to reorganize and adapt after injury or learning.

What is stress?

The body’s response to perceived threats or challenges.

What is eustress?

Positive stress that motivates growth or performance.

What is distress?

Negative stress that causes discomfort or harm.

What is the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages of stress response.

What hormone is released during stress?

Cortisol.

What are problem-focused coping strategies?

Strategies that aim to change the situation causing stress.

What are emotion-focused coping strategies?

Strategies that manage emotional responses to stress.

What is psychoneuroimmunology?

The study of how stress affects the immune system.

What is positive psychology?

The scientific study of human strengths and well-being.

What are the three types of happiness according to Seligman?

Pleasant life, good life, and meaningful life.

What is sensation?

The process of detecting physical stimuli from the environment.

What is perception?

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

What is transduction?

The conversion of physical energy into neural signals.

What are rods?

Photoreceptors that detect light and dark, used for night vision.

What are cones?

Photoreceptors that detect color and fine detail.

What is sensory adaptation?

Decreased sensitivity after constant stimulation.

What is the absolute threshold?

The lowest level of stimulus detected 50% of the time.

What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing?

Bottom-up starts from sensory input; top-down uses expectations and experience.

What is depth perception?

The ability to judge distance and three-dimensional space.

What sense is most tied to memory?

Smell.

What is consciousness?

Awareness of one’s self and environment.

What are circadian rhythms?

Biological cycles that occur roughly every 24 hours.

What is the function of REM sleep?

Associated with dreaming and memory consolidation.

What is insomnia?

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

What is sleep apnea?

Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep.

What is mindfulness?

Nonjudgmental awareness of present thoughts and sensations.

What is meditation?

Focused attention practice that promotes relaxation and awareness.

What is motivation?

The process that initiates, directs, and sustains behavior.

What is homeostasis?

The body’s tendency to maintain internal balance.

What is intrinsic motivation?

Motivation from internal satisfaction or interest.

What is extrinsic motivation?

Motivation from external rewards or pressures.

What is emotion?

A complex reaction involving physiological arousal and feelings.

What is the James-Lange theory?

Emotions result from physiological responses to stimuli.

What is the Cannon-Bard theory?

Emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

What is the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory?

Emotion is based on arousal and cognitive labeling.

What is the amygdala responsible for?

Processing fear and aggression.

What is learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by associating one stimulus with another.

Who is associated with classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning based on rewards and punishments.

Who is associated with operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner.

What is reinforcement?

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of behavior.

What is punishment?

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of behavior.

What is observational learning?

Learning by watching and imitating others.

Who conducted the Bobo Doll study?

Albert Bandura.

What are the three stages of memory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What is sensory memory?

Brief storage of sensory input lasting 1–3 seconds.

What is working memory?

Active short-term storage for processing information.

What is long-term memory?

Relatively permanent and unlimited storage.

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Encoding information by linking it to meaning.

What is chunking?

Grouping items into meaningful units to improve recall.

What is the spacing effect?

Learning is better when study sessions are spaced out.

What is proactive interference?

Old information interferes with new learning.

What is retroactive interference?

New information interferes with old memories.

What is the misinformation effect?

When misleading information alters memory of an event.

What are the three components of Freud’s personality theory?

Id, ego, and superego.

What does the id operate on?

The pleasure principle.

What does the ego operate on?

The reality principle.

What are the Big Five traits?

Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

What is self-actualization?

Reaching one’s fullest potential.