PSYCH 251 EXAM 2

Law of Effect

Behavior is a function of its consequences.
- The relationship between behavior and its consequence.

Four Elements (Law of Effect)

- Environment
- Behavior
- Change in the environment after the behavior occurs
- Change in behavior due to its consequences

B.F. Skinner

- Known for studying animal learning.
- Developed the Skinner box to observe behavior.
- Introduced concepts of operant conditioning.

Operant Learning:

- Behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences.
- Types of operant learning: positive reinforcement, positive punishment, negative reinforcement, negative punishment.

Positive Reinforcement:

- Reward learning.
- Adding a preferred stimulus to increase the occurrence of behavior in the future.
- Positive reinforcer: Stimulus preferred by an individual that increases behavior likelihood.

Negative Reinforcement:

- Escape-avoidance learning.
- Removing a non-preferred stimulus to increase behavior occurrence.
- Negative reinforcer: Stimulus typically avoided, removal increases behavior likelihood.

Kinds of Reinforcement:

Primary reinforcers: Innately effective (e.g., food, water).
- Secondary reinforcers: Learned through experiences (e.g., praise).
- Generalized reinforcers: Paired with many reinforcers (e.g., money).

Variables Affecting Operant Learning:

- Contingency
- Contiguity
- Reinforcer characteristics
- Behavior characteristics
- Motivating operations (EO and AO)

Neuromechanics of Reinforcement:

- Brain's reward center is located in the septal region.
- Dopamine production related to reinforcement.
- Theories of positive reinforcement: Thorndike, Drive reduction theory (Hull), Relative value theory (Premack).

Theories of Avoidance:

- Two-process theory (classical and operant conditioning)
- One-process theory (only operant learning)
- Sidman Avoidance Procedure
- Douglas Anger and Herstien-Hineline's perspectives

Shaping:

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Chaining

using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills

Forward chaining

a method for teaching behavior chains that begins with the learner being prompted and taught to perform the fist behaivor in the task analysis; the trainer completed the remaining steps in the chain

Backward Chaining

- Definition: In backward chaining, each chain step is reinforced in order starting from the last step.
- Process: Start by reinforcing the last behavior in the sequence, then work backward to reinforce the preceding steps.
- Example: Teaching a child to tie their shoes by first reinforcing the final step (tying the knot), then reinforcing the preceding steps such as making loops, etc.

Successive Approximations:

Gradual steps towards the desired behavior, each reinforced as it gets closer to the target.

Complex Task Breakdown

Breaking down complex tasks into smaller, manageable steps for effective teaching.

Natural Learning Processes

Shaping and chaining occur organically in both humans and animals as part of the learning process.

Reinforcement:

The cornerstone of shaping and chaining, reinforcement strengthens desired behaviors and facilitates learning.

Application:

- Shaping and chaining are widely utilized in various fields including education, psychology, animal training, and rehabilitation to teach new skills and modify behavior effectively.
- Understanding these concepts can aid educators, trainers, and therapists in designing efficient learning programs and interventions.

schedule of reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement refers to a certain rule describing the contingency between behavior and reinforcement. It outlines the relationship between desired behavior and the reinforcement (rewards) received for that behavior.

Schedule Effects:

the distinctive rate and pattern of behavior associated with a particular reinforcement schedule

Fixed Duration Schedule:

- A behavior is reinforced when it has continuously occurred for a fixed duration of time.
- Example: Practicing a sport with your team for two hours and then having a snack.

Variable Duration Schedule:

- A behavior is reinforced when it has continuously occurred for an average duration of time.
- Example: While practicing a sport with your team, yo

Fixed Time Schedule:

A reinforcer is delivered after a given time regardless of behavior. Used to create a state of satiation and reduce desire for a particular reinforcer.

Variable Schedule

A reinforcer is delivered at irregular time intervals regardless of behavior. Also used to create a state of satiation and reduce the desire for a particular reinforcer.

Progressive Schedules

- Can be applied to all simple schedules of reinforcement.
- The contingencies change with each correct trial.
- Example: Progressive ratio schedule for writing your name.

Break Point:

When the desired behavior dramatically declines.

Ratio Strain

Stretching the ratio/interval of reinforcement too thin or too quickly.

Multiple Schedules:

One behavior under two or more simple schedules with a known stimulus.

Mixed Schedule:

One behavior under two or more simple schedules without a stimulus.

Chain Schedule:

Multiple simple schedules run consecutively; must complete all schedules in order with a known stimulus to signal transition.

Tandem Schedule:

Multiple simple schedules run consecutively; must complete all schedules in order without a stimulus to signal transition.

Concurrent Schedules:

Two or more different simple schedules are available at the same time, offering a choice between behaviors.

Matching Law:

Given a choice between two behaviors, each with its schedule of reinforcement, the distribution in the choice between the behaviors matches the availability of reinforcement.

Contingency

contingency refers to the degree of correlation between a behavior and
its consequence = how well does a particular behavior predict that a particular
consequence will follow.

Contiguity

ontiguity refers to how close in time the behavior and reinforcer are.
Generally put, the shorter the interval between the two, the faster the learning will occur

Sidman Avoidance Procedure

Use of regular time intervals and no conditioned stimulus
There was no signal of aversive stimulus to avoid , however on a time schedule rats still engages in avoidance behavior

Douglas Anger

time is the conditioned stimulus

Herstien and Hineline-

Time is not a conditioned stimulus

Brain's reward center

Located in the septal region of the brain.
Dopamine production.

Primary reinforcers

Unconditioned reinforcers
Innately effective/ no learning history necessary

Satiation

Reduction in reinforcing effects of given reinforcer due to increased availability (lack of need)
Eg: I do not need to work for money after hitting the mega millions

Deprivation

Increase in the reinforcing effects of a given reinforcer due to decreased availability ( or increased need)
Eg: i want a large drink after eating salty popcorn during a movie

Secondary reinforcers

-Conditioned reinforcers
-Learned through experiences ( pairing with other reinforcers)
-Praise
-Preferred
-Weaker than primary reinforcers
-Satiate more slowly than primary reinforcers
-Effectiveness relies on primary reinforcers

Generalized reinforcers

-Paired with many different reinforcers
-Can be used in a wife variety of situations
-Money
-Token boards

Natural reinforcers

-Automatic reinforcers
-Spontaneously follows behavior
Eg: a jacket when you are feeling cold

Contrived reinforcers

-Manipulated by someone for the purpose of modifying behavior
Eg: a sticker for completing homework assignment

Establishing Operations (EO)

-Increase the value of a reinforcer and increases the frequency of the behavior to access the reinforcer
Eg: Feeling hungry

Abolishing Operations (AO)

-Decreases the value of a reinforcer and decreases the frequency of the behavior to access the reinforcer
Eg: feeling full after a large meal

Thorndike

Practice makes perfect is not simply about repeating something until you get good at it what we need is a addition of reinforcement.

Drive reduction theory (hull)

-All behaviors are due to motivational states called drives
-Works well to explain primary reinforcers
-A reduction in physiological needs
Eg, drive: hunger → reinforcer: food
-does not explain secondary reinforcers as well (e.g. praise)
-Hull explained this using the associations between primary and secondary (objects) reinforcers

Relative value theory (premack)

-All behavior has relative values
-There are not physiological drives
-No concern regarding primary vs secondary reinforcers
Some relative values are greater than others
-E.g. value of pushing the lever is greater than eating
-The more probable behavior will reinforce the less probable behavior
-A given behavior can be both more or less probable given the circumstances
-Premack principle: first-then; if-then
-Presents less desired behavior first, followed by preferred behavior.

Response-Deprivation Theory

-William Timberlake and James Allison
-Behavior becomes reinforcing when it is less available than normal
-A behavior's reinforcing value is based on a comparison to the "baseline" availability for that behavior
-Not compared to other behaviors