Foundational toolkit written exam

manus

carpus

antebrachium

cubital joint

scapulohumeral joint

metatarsus/pes

tarsus/hock

crus

stifle

pelvis, coxofemoral joint

How was a dorsoventral radiograph taken?

patient on their stomach, plate under them

How was a ventrodorsal radiograph taken?

patient on their back, plate under them

How are radiographs displayed?

patient’s head always faces left

How does an ultrasound work?

short mechanical pulse is delivered to tissues, changes according to tissue density and acoustic impedances, and the echo is collected to create an image

What is frequency?

number of wave cycles that occur in a second, medical ultrasound ranges 2-200 MHz

What is wavelength?

distance between repeating points on a wave

What is the speed of sound?

distance traveled by the wave in a unit time

What is perpendicular reflection?

allows observance of boundaries between tissues, probe must be held perpendicularly so reflected waves can be received by the probe

What is ultrasound scattering?

allows observance of internal structures, when waves hit a structure smaller than the wavelength or non-smooth boundaries, reflected waves go in many directions

What does A-mode show on ultrasound?

amplitude, not used much

What does B-mode show on ultrasound?

brightness, lighter gray indicates a strong echo/denser tissue, darker gray indicates weaker echo/less dense tissue or fluid

What does M mode show on ultrasound?

motion of tissues, used in cardiology for echocardiograms

What is spatial resolution?

lateral, elevational, and axial, axial shows objects at different depths, higher frequency shows higher resolution

What is the doppler effect?

the concept that the wavelength of an object moving towards the pulse is shorter and an object moving away from the pulse is longer

How are blood vessels observed using the doppler effect?

blood traveling toward the probe is labeled red and blood traveling away from the probe is labeled blue, but color does not equate to arteries or veins

What is a pulsed wave doppler?

precise evaluation of a small region, used to observe blood traveling away from probe through a heart valve

What is a continuous doppler?

evaluation of whole blood flow along a line, used to observe blood traveling toward and away from probe

What is a convex transducer?

produces trapezoidal image, ideal for abdominal structures because it uses lower frequencies to produce a lower resolution image

What is a linear transducer?

produces rectangular image, ideal for superficial structures because it uses higher frequencies to produce a high resolution image

What is a phased array transducer?

produces triangular image, used for cardiology

What does the gain setting do?

adjusts overall brightness of the image

What does the acquire setting do?

saves the image

What does the focus setting do?

white line on the side that shows what depth you are looking at, can focus on some depths more than others

What does the time gain compensation setting do?

changes brightness at individual depths, don’t put the sliders in random positions or it will make random white lines in the image

What are calipers?

markers you can put on the image to outline or highlight a structure you want to draw attention to

What is echogenicity?

hyperechoic means brighter than, hypoechoic means darker than, isoechoic means the same brightness

What does echostructure/echotexture refer to?

describes internal structure like homo/heterozygous, coarse, mottled, honeycomb

What is acoustic shadowing?

a darker stripe that appears underneath a highly reflective structure like bladder stone

What is acoustic enhancement?

a brighter stripe that appears underneath a very hypoechoic structure like a fluid filled pocket

What is reverberation?

equally spaced hyperechoic lines from the probe surface and a highly reflective structure bouncing echoes back and forth

What is a mirror ultrasound artifact?

when a smooth, curved, strongly reflective surface is behind a tissue, it will reflect waves onto the structure in front of it but the ultrasound will think its behind it, commonly the liver appears in the thoracic cavity

What is twinkling?

rapidly changing red and blue areas on a doppler can appear on highly reflective structures like mineralized structures

What is aliasing?

with very high velocity blood flow, it can go out off the set color range and starts appearing as the opposite end of the color spectrum

What is gross anatomy?

study of structures visible with the naked eye

What is microanatomy?

study of structures using a light microscope

What is ultrastructural anatomy?

study of structures using an electron microscope

What is topographical anatomy?

study of anatomy of one part in relation to others

What is systemic anatomy?

study of structures related to a body system

What is developmental anatomy?

study of organisms from conception to death

What is functional anatomy?

study of how form and function are related

What is pathological anatomy?

study of anatomic deviations from normal due to disease/dysfunction

What are homologous structures?

similar structures due to a recent common ancestor, may or may not have the same function

What are analogous structures?

unrelated structures with no recent common ancestor but serve a similar function

What are vestigial structures?

remnants from ancestors but now serve reduced or no function

What are the regions of the forelimb?

axilla, brachium, cubital joint, antebrachium, carpus, manus

What are the regions of the hindlimb?

thigh, stifle joint, crus, tarsus, pes

What are the cavities of the head?

cranial, sinuses, nasal, oral

Where does the cranial/caudal terminology on the limb change to dorsal/palmar?

at the capus or tarsus

What are fibrous joints?

unite two or more bones with no cartilage, very restricted movement, bones of skull

What are cartilaginous joints?

unite two or more bones with cartilage but no joint capsule or space, limited movement, vertebral bodies

What are synovial joints?

unite two or more bones covered in hyaline cartilage encompassed by a joint capsule that secretes fluid, significant movement, 7 shapes

What is aponeurosis?

large flat plane of connective tissue that connects muscle to a bone

What is a muscle origin?

fixed point of muscle attachment, usually more proximal

What is muscle insertion?

point of muscle attachment with movement, usually more distal

What is a bursa?

fluid filled connective tissue sac that reduces friction, usually between a tendon or ligament and bony prominence

What is a tendon sheath?

elongated double layered sacs with inner synovial membrane encasing tendons where they pass over a bony surface or through a groove

What is the cutaneous trunci?

thin sheet of muscle over thorax and abdomen with no bony attachments and causes skin twitching

What bones comprise the axial skeleton?

cranium, mandible, spine, sternum, ribcage

What is the temporomandibular joint?

synovial joint that connects the temporal bone of the cranium to the mandible

What important structures are on the temporal bone?

mastoid process and external acoustic meatus

How many of each vertebrae are there in the dog?

C7, T13, L5, S3

Describe the structure of ribs in a dog

first 9 articulate with the sternum, ribs 10, 11, 12 connect with cartilage, and the 13th rib is floating

What bones comprise appendicular skeleton?

scapula, humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, ilium, ischium, pubis, femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges

What is the os coxae?

one half of the pelvis bone comprised of the ilium, ischium, and pubis

9 glenoid cavity, 11 spine of scapula, 14 coracoid process, 15 acromion, supraglenoid tubercle is above glenoid

1 greater tubercle, 2 head of humerus, 3 lesser tubercle, 5 deltoid tuberosity, 7 supratrochlear foramen, 8 medial epicondyle, 10 lateral epicondyle

1 medial condyle, 7 lateral condyle, 10 medial malleolus, 12 lateral malleolus, 15 tibial tuberosity

What are the branches off the aorta in the thorax?

coronary arteries, brachiocephalic trunk, left subclavian, intercostal arteries

What are the branches off the aorta in the abdomen?

celiac, cranial mesenteric, renal arteries, testicular/ovarian arteries, caudal mesenteric

What are the branches off the aorta in the pelvis?

external iliac arteries, internal iliac arteries, median sacral

What are the support cells of the nervous system?

astrocytes, microglial, oligodendrocytes, schwann

What is a group of somata in the CNS called?

nucleus

What is a group of axons in the CNS called?

nerve pathway/tract

What is a group of somata in the PNS?

ganglion

What is a group of axons in the PNS?

nerve fascicle

Describe the path of an nerve through the spinal cord

afferent nerve enters through dorsal root with somata in dorsal root ganglion, dorsal horn in spinal cord, ventral horn in spinal cord, dorsal and ventral roots together form spinal nerve, splits into dorsal and ventral ramus

What is the somatic nervous system?

controls voluntary movement, skeletal muscle

What is the autonomic nervous system?

controls involuntary movement, smooth and cardiac muscle

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

part of ANS, fight or flight responses, cell bodies in thoracolumbar region of spinal cord or sympathetic trunk

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

part of ANS, rest and digest responses, cell bodies in brain and sacral region of spinal cord or walls of effector organs

What is the enteric nervous sytem?

part of parasympathetic ANS, can spontaneously generate impulses, controls GI tract

What are the main parameters of an x ray?

grid, kVp, mAs, focus

Where do x rays fall in the electromagnetic spectrum?

between gamma and ultraviolet radiation

What are the properties of x rays?

able to penetrate materials that absorb/reflect visible light, cause fluorescence in certain materials, produce images on photosensitive film, produce ions and cause biological changes in tissue

What are the components of the x ray tube?

negatively charged cathode as source of electrons and positively charged rotating anode that electrons travel towards contained in a glass vacuum to prevent air molecules from interfering

What molecular interaction produces x rays?

bremsstrahlung, where accelerated electrons from the cathode collide with the anode and are redirected around the nucleus, producing an x ray and heat

What percent of bremsstrahlung interactions produce x rays?

less than 1 percent, the rest of the energy is converted to heat as 2000 degree celcius electrons

What is the x ray tube current?

number of electrons that pass from cathode to anode per minute, measured in mA

What is mAs?

current of electrons multiplied by time of exposure, gives total number of electrons

How can mAs be adjusted?

lower mAs means the exposure time increases, which is difficult if the patient is moving a lot