research methods definitions

Abstract

The first section in a psychological report or journal that summarizes the aims, hypothesis, method, results, and conclusions.

Aim

A general statement explaining the purpose of the research in a study.

Bar Chart

A visual representation used to show frequency data for discrete variables.

Behavioural Categories

Specific behaviours that psychologists operationalise for structured observations.

Bias

To influence unfairly; in sampling, it means under- or over-representation of certain groups.

BPS Code of Ethics

A document by the British Psychological Society detailing principles for using human participants in research.

Case Studies

Detailed investigations of an individual or small group, often regarding unusual phenomena.

Chi-Squared

A non-parametric statistical test that assesses the significance of results based on nominal data.

Closed Questions

Questions that restrict responses to a predetermined set, generating quantitative data.

Coding: Content Analysis

The process of categorizing qualitative data for analysis.

Concurrent Validity

The assessment of whether a new test produces similar results to an existing test of the same nature.

Content Analysis

A method for analyzing qualitative data and transforming it into quantitative data.

Correlation Co-Efficient

A statistic measuring the strength of correlation between two or more variables.

Correlational Study

A non-experimental method examining the relationship between two or more variables.

Counterbalancing

A technique to balance order effects in repeated measures designs.

Critical Values

Numerical values used to determine the significance of statistical results.

Demand Characteristics

When participants alter their behavior to align with perceived research aims.

Dependent Variable

The variable measured in an experiment that is affected by the independent variable.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that summarize or describe data meaningfully.

Directional Hypothesis

A one-tailed hypothesis predicting the direction of a difference or relationship.

Discussion

A section in research report where results are interpreted and implications considered.

Ecological Validity

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-life settings.

Empirical Method

Using objective observation in systematic, controlled settings to test theories.

Event Sampling

A technique in observational research where the frequency of a specific behavior is recorded.

Experimental Design

The method of allocating participants to experimental groups in psychology research.

Extraneous Variable

Any variable other than the independent variable that might affect the dependent variable.

Face Validity

The assessment of whether an instrument appears to measure what it claims to measure.

Falsifiability

A principle stating a theory must be able to be proven false to be scientific.

Field Experiment

An experiment conducted in natural conditions with manipulated independent variables.

Generalisation

Applying results from a study to the wider target population.

Histogram

A graph for continuous data with no space between bars.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction regarding variables in a study.

Hypothesis Testing

The process of determining if research findings support a hypothesis.

Independent Groups

An experimental design using different participants in each condition.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Inter-Observer Reliability

The degree to which different observers agree on their observations.

Interval

Data measured in fixed, equal units without an absolute zero.

Interviews

A self-report technique involving one-on-one questioning to gather responses.

Introduction

The section in research that reviews previous work to provide context for current research.

Investigator Effects

When a researcher unintentionally influences results to align with their hypothesis.

Laboratory Experiment

An experiment conducted in controlled, artificial settings.

Levels of Measurement

Different ways variables can be measured including nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Mann-Whitney

A non-parametric test that determines significant differences between groups.

Matched Pairs

An experimental design using pairs of participants matched on key variables.

Mean

The average score calculated by dividing the sum of all scores by the number of scores.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistics that summarize the central point of a dataset, including mean, median, and mode.

Measures of Dispersion

Statistics showing the spread of data around a central value.

Median

The middle score in an ordered data set.

Meta-Analysis

Combining findings from multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Method

The section describing the methodology of a research study.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Natural Experiment

An experiment conducted in natural settings where the IV cannot be manipulated.

Negative Correlation

When one variable increases as another decreases.

Nominal

Frequency data categorized into distinct groups.

Non-Directional Hypothesis

A two-tailed hypothesis not predicting the direction of the difference.

Normal Distribution

A symmetrical data distribution shaped like a bell.

Objectivity

A feature of research where bias is minimized.

Observational Study

A study involving the observation of actual behaviors.

Open Questions

Questions allowing participants to answer freely, generating qualitative data.

Operationalisation

Defining variables clearly for measurement.

Opportunity Sampling

Selecting participants based on availability and willingness.

Ordinal

Data presented in rank order.

Paradigm

A set of assumptions and methods commonly accepted in a scientific field.

Paradigm Shift

A significant change in scientific thought processes.

Pearson's r

A parametric test of correlation assessing significance.

Peer Review

A quality assessment process of research before publication.

Percentages

A way to summarize data expressing parts of a whole between 0 and 100.

Pilot Studies

Small-scale trials to identify potential issues before full-scale research.

Positive Correlation

When two variables increase or decrease together.

Primary Data

Data collected directly by a researcher for their study.

Probability

The likelihood of an event occurring.

Psychology and the Economy

How psychological research impacts economic prosperity.

Qualitative Data

Non-numerical, language-based data gathered from interviews.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data suitable for statistical analysis.

Quasi Experiment

An experiment using a naturally occurring independent variable.

Questionnaire

A self-report tool for collecting participants' responses.

Random Allocation

Assigning participants to groups randomly to prevent bias.

Random Sampling

A technique ensuring every member of the target population has an equal chance of selection.

Randomisation

The process of randomly ordering conditions in an experiment.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset.

Referencing

Citing sources used in psychological reports.

Related t-test

A parametric test for assessing differences in repeated measures designs.

Reliability

The consistency of results in a study.

Repeated Measures

Design using the same participants across all conditions.

Replicability

The ability to repeat a study and obtain the same results.

Results

The section detailing findings from a research study.

Sampling

The process of selecting participants from a population.

Scattergram

A graph showing the correlation between two sets of data.

Secondary Data

Information gathered by other researchers or sources.

Semi-Structured Interview

An interview format with prepared questions supplemented by additional ones.

Sign Test

A non-parametric test assessing differences in repeated measures designs.

Significance

The determination of whether results are likely due to chance.

Skewed Distribution

A distribution where data is not evenly spread, causing bias.

Spearman's rho

A non-parametric test assessing correlations among ordinal data.

Standard Deviation

A measure indicating the spread of scores in a dataset.

Standardisation

Keeping research procedures consistent across trials.

Statistical Tables

Tables providing critical values for assessing statistical significance.

Stratified Sampling

Dividing a population into sections and sampling from each to ensure representation.

Structured Interview

An interview with predetermined questions asked in order.

Systematic Sampling

Selecting participants using a predetermined system.