Learning and Memory

Nonassociative Learning

Learning about a single stimulus.

Habituation

Decreased response to repeated stimuli (e.g., tuning out background noise).

Sensitization

Increased response to repeated stimuli (e.g., heightened reaction to a loud noise after a scare).

Associative Learning

Learning a connection between stimuli or behaviors.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian)

Associating two stimuli (e.g., dog salivates to bell after repeated pairings with food).

Operant Conditioning

Associating behavior with consequences (e.g., studying more to get good grades).

Acquisition

Initial learning phase where associations are formed.

Extinction

The weakening of a learned response when reinforcement or stimulus pairing stops.

Generalization

Responding similarly to similar stimuli (e.g., Little Albert feared all furry objects, not just white rats).

Discrimination

Learning to differentiate between stimuli (e.g., responding to a specific tone but not others).

Prediction Error

Learning occurs when there’s a mismatch between expected and actual outcomes.

Temporal Difference Learning

Future rewards influence present behavior.

Rescorla-Wagner Model

Learning depends on the difference between expected and actual reinforcement.

Dopamine's Role in Learning - Before Learning

Dopamine spikes in response to unexpected rewards.

Dopamine's Role in Learning - During Learning

Dopamine shifts to the cue that predicts the reward.

Dopamine's Role in Learning - After Learning

If reward is omitted, dopamine levels drop, signaling prediction error.

Mesolimbic Pathway

Links the Ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the Nucleus Accumbens; involved in reward and motivation.

Mesocortical Pathway

Links the VTA to the Prefrontal Cortex; involved in cognition and decision-making.

Nigrostriatal Pathway

Links the Substantia Nigra to the Striatum; affected in Parkinson’s disease.

Tuberoinfundibular Pathway

Links the Hypothalamus to the Pituitary Gland; involved in hormone regulation.

Dopamine = Feel-Good Chemical Myth

Dopamine signals motivation, prediction error, and learning, but does not directly cause pleasure.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Temporary storage of information lasting about 30 seconds with a limited capacity of approximately 7±2 items.

Working Memory

Active processing system that allows manipulation of information (like mental math or following directions).

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Memory that lasts from days to years with unlimited capacity.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Memory that involves conscious recall.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences (e.g., birthday parties).

Semantic Memory

General knowledge about the world (e.g., capital of France is Paris).

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Memory for unconscious skills and habits.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory related to motor skills (e.g., riding a bike).

Priming

A process where exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus.

Encoding

The process of converting information into neural signals for storage.

Storage

Consolidation of information into long-term memory.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored memories.

HM (Henry Molaison)

Patient who lost episodic memory after hippocampus removal but retained procedural memory.

Clive Wearing

Individual with severe amnesia but intact procedural memory; cannot recall episodic information.

Double Dissociation

Demonstrates that explicit memory and procedural skills are managed by separate systems in the brain.

Long-Term Memory Taxonomy

Long-Term Memory includes Explicit (Declarative) Memory and Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A process that strengthens synaptic connections, crucial for learning at the neural level.

Neural Networks

Hippocampus consolidates memories, while cortical areas store long-term knowledge.

Key Brain Structures in Memory

Includes Hippocampus (explicit memory), Amygdala (emotional memory), Prefrontal Cortex (working memory), Basal Ganglia & Cerebellum (implicit memory), Thalamus (sensory relay), and Mammillary bodies (episodic memory).