AP EXAM 2 Review

What are Polymers and how are they formed?

Polymers are large molecules made by bonding many smaller units called monomers.

What role do Monomers play in the formation of larger molecules?

Monomers are the basic building blocks that combine to form larger molecules called polymers.

Why are Amino Acids considered essential for proteins?

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, with 20 types that determine protein structure and function.

What are the functions of Enzymes in biochemical reactions?

Enzymes are specialized proteins that function as catalysts in biological systems. They accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy, thus enhancing the rate and efficiency of metabolic processes.

What is the significance of Denaturation in proteins?

Denaturation is the loss of a protein's three-dimensional structure due to extreme conditions, leading to loss of functionality.

How do Monosaccharides contribute to carbohydrate structure?

Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, single sugar molecules like glucose and fructose, and serve as the building blocks for complex carbohydrates.

How do Disaccharides differ from Monosaccharides?

Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds, examples include sucrose and lactose.

What are Polysaccharides and their functions in biological systems?

Polysaccharides are large carbohydrates made of chains of monosaccharides, essential for energy storage (e.g., starch, glycogen) and structural support (e.g., cellulose in plant cell walls).

How is Metabolism organized in living organisms?

Metabolism includes all biochemical reactions in organisms, divided into anabolism (energy-requiring synthesis of complex molecules) and catabolism (energy-releasing breakdown of complex molecules).

What is the process of Anabolism and its energy requirements?

Anabolism is a metabolic pathway that synthesizes complex molecules from simpler precursors, requiring energy for growth and cellular repair.

What occurs during Catabolism within biological systems?

Catabolism is the metabolic process that breaks down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy for cellular activities.

How is Kinetic Energy defined in relation to objects?

Kinetic Energy is the energy of an object in motion, increasing with its velocity.

What constitutes Potential Energy and its significance?

Potential Energy is the stored energy in an object due to its position or state, such as the gravitational potential energy of an elevated object determined by its height and mass.

What is Combustion and its products?

Combustion is a vigorous reaction between an organic molecule and oxygen that produces energy (heat) and generates carbon dioxide and water.

What role does Cellular Respiration play in energy generation?

Cellular respiration converts nutrients, mainly glucose, into ATP through oxidation reactions, producing usable energy for cellular functions.

Why is ATP considered the energy currency of the cell?

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of cells, responsible for storing and transferring energy for biochemical reactions vital for life.

What distinguishes Fermentation from aerobic metabolism?

Fermentation is an anaerobic process that occurs without oxygen, primarily in muscle cells, producing energy through partial glucose oxidation, but yields less energy than aerobic respiration.

What are the Base Pairing Rules and their significance in nucleic acids?

Base Pairing Rules dictate nitrogenous base pairing in nucleic acids: in DNA, adenine pairs with thymine and guanine with cytosine; in RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil.

How does the Codon Translation Table facilitate protein synthesis?

The Codon Translation Table correlates mRNA codons with specific amino acids, guiding protein synthesis during translation.

What are Nucleotides and their components?

Nucleotides are the basic units of nucleic acids, made up of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group, essential for storing and transferring genetic information.

What is the structural significance of DNA?

DNA is the hereditary material in organisms, organized as a double-stranded helix, enabling it to store vital genetic information for development and functioning.

What functions does RNA perform within cells?

RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid that serves as a template for protein synthesis and regulates gene expression.

What occurs during the process of Transcription?

Transcription is the process of synthesizing messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA template within the nucleus, creating a complementary RNA strand that encodes genetic information.

What steps are involved in Translation?

Translation is the cellular process of decoding mRNA to synthesize proteins (polypeptides) at ribosomes, involving initiation, elongation, and termination.

Characterization of Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue consists of densely packed cell layers lining body surfaces, providing protection and aiding absorption with minimal intercellular spaces.

What are the distinctive features of Glandular Epithelium?

Glandular epithelium specializes in secretion, consisting of endocrine glands that release hormones into the bloodstream and exocrine glands that secrete products onto surfaces.

How does Connective Tissue differ from other tissue types?

Connective tissue is a diverse group that supports and binds other tissues and organs, characterized by an extracellular matrix that provides structural integrity.

What role does the Extracellular Matrix play in tissue structure?

The extracellular matrix is a protein and molecule network outside cells that provides structural and biochemical support and facilitates intercellular communication.

What is the function of Areolar Connective Tissue?

Areolar connective tissue is a loose type that supports and binds other tissues through an elastic and flexible extracellular matrix, accommodating various tissue shapes.

What is the role of Adipose Tissue in the body?

Adipose tissue is connective tissue that stores energy as fat, insulates the body, and cushions vital organs.

What are the distinct functions of Cartilage?

Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that provides structural support, cushions joints, and reduces friction during movement.

How is Homeostasis defined in physiological terms?

Homeostasis is the process through which organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes, ensuring optimal biochemical functioning.

What is the concept of Negative Feedback in homeostatic regulation?

Negative feedback is a mechanism that counteracts deviations from a set point to restore equilibrium in physiological systems.

What mechanisms are involved in Thermoregulation?

Thermoregulation involves biological processes that regulate body temperature through mechanisms like perspiration, vasodilation, and vasoconstriction.

What is Vasodilation and its purpose in the body?

Vasodilation is the widening of blood vessels, enhancing blood flow and heat loss to assist in thermoregulation when body temperatures rise.

What is the significance of Vasoconstriction in temperature regulation?

Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of blood vessels that reduces blood flow to peripheral areas, conserving body heat in cold conditions.

What are Arrector Pili and their function?

Arrector pili are small muscles attached to hair follicles that contract when cold or frightened, causing hairs to stand up and generate warmth.

What defines the Hypodermis and its primary functions?

The hypodermis, or subcutaneous layer, lies beneath the dermis and is mainly composed of adipose tissue for insulation and energy storage.

What is the function of Tight Junctions in epithelial cells?

Tight junctions are specialized connections that create a barrier between epithelial cells to prevent leakage and uphold tissue integrity.

What role do Desmosomes play in tissue integrity?

Desmosomes weld adjacent cells together, providing mechanical strength and resilience to tissues under stress.

What is the function of Gap Junctions in cellular communication?

Gap junctions are intercellular channels that enable direct communication between adjacent cells by allowing the transfer of ions and small molecules.

What are the characteristics and functions of Stratified Squamous Epithelium?

Stratified squamous epithelium has multiple layers of flat cells, offering protection against abrasion and injury, typically found in high-stress areas.

What are the structural and functional traits of Simple Columnar Epithelium?

Simple columnar epithelium consists of a single layer of tall cells involved in absorption and secretion, often featuring microvilli or cilia for enhanced functionality.

How does Pseudostratified Epithelium differ from true stratified epithelium?

Pseudostratified epithelium looks stratified due to differing cell heights but consists of a single layer, typically found in the respiratory tract and often ciliated to facilitate mucus movement.

What is Transitional Epithelium and where is it found?

Transitional epithelium is a specialized epithelium that can change shape, enabling expansion and contraction, found mainly in the urinary system.

What is Merocrine Secretion?

Merocrine secretion is the release of products by glandular cells via exocytosis, without losing any part of the cell.

What characterizes Apocrine Secretion?

Apocrine secretion involves the release of a portion of the cell's cytoplasm with the secretory product, causing some loss of the gland.

How does Holocrine Secretion differ from other secretion methods?

Holocrine secretion completely disintegrates the secreting cell to release its entire contents, causing the loss of the cell.

What is Hyaline Cartilage and its anatomical significance?

Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage, offering firm yet flexible support in areas like the nose, trachea, and joints, crucial for structural integrity.

What are the attributes of Elastic Cartilage and where is it located?

Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers for flexibility, found in structures requiring elastic support, such as the external ear.

What role does Fibrocartilage serve in the body?

Fibrocartilage is a strong, resilient cartilage found in intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis, providing support and resisting compressive forces.

What are the functions of Osteocytes within bone tissue?

Osteocytes are mature bone cells embedded in the bone's mineralized matrix, crucial for maintaining bone structure and regulating mineral exchange.

What is the composition and function of Blood Plasma?

Blood plasma is the liquid part of blood containing dissolved substances like nutrients and hormones, essential for transport in the circulatory system.

What are the functions of Serous Membranes in the body?

Serous membranes line closed cavities and secrete fluid to reduce friction between organs, aiding smooth movement.

What distinguishes Mucous Membranes from other membrane types?

Mucous membranes line organs communicating with the exterior, secreting mucus to maintain moisture and trap pathogens.

What is the role of Synovial Membranes in joint function?

Synovial membranes line synovial joints, producing synovial fluid that lubricates the joint and nourishes cartilage.

How is the Cutaneous Membrane structured and what functions does it serve?

The cutaneous membrane (skin) consists of layered structures that protect against environmental hazards, dehydration, and infection, while also enabling sensation and thermoregulation.

What are the key characteristics of the Epidermis?

The epidermis is the outermost skin layer, made of keratinized epithelial cells that waterproof and protect against environmental harm.

What is the significance of the Dermis in skin structure?

The dermis is the skin's supportive layer, composed of collagen and elastin fibers, containing blood vessels and nerve endings.

What defines the Subcutaneous Layer and its role?

The subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) beneath the dermis is primarily composed of adipose tissue, providing insulation, energy storage, and shock absorption.

Stratum Corneum

The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis, consisting of dead, keratinized cells that protect against environmental damage and prevent water loss.

What are the roles of Melanocytes in skin pigmentation?

Melanocytes are specialized cells that produce melanin, the pigment for skin and hair color, and protect skin from UV radiation.

What are Thermoregulators and their significance in the body?

Thermore Regulators are mechanisms that maintain body temperature homeostasis by triggering responses like sweating and adjusting blood flow.

What role do Thermoreceptors play in the body's response to temperature?

Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors that detect temperature changes and signal the brain to regulate thermoregulation.

How does the Hypothalamus function in thermoregulation?

The hypothalamus acts as the control center for thermoregulation, coordinating physiological responses to maintain optimal body temperature.

What is Conduction?

Conduction is heat transfer through direct contact between materials, moving thermal energy from warmer to cooler objects.

What is the process of Convection and its significance in heat transfer?

Convection is a heat transfer process in fluids where warm, less dense areas rise and cooler, denser regions sink, allowing for energy distribution.

What is Evaporation and why is it important for temperature regulation?

Evaporation is the conversion of liquid sweat to vapor, which cools the body and regulates temperature.

What is Thermogenesis and its role in the body?

Thermogenesis is the metabolic process of heat generation, crucial for maintaining core body temperature in response to environmental changes.

What characterizes Brown Adipose Tissue and its function?

Brown adipose tissue is a calorie-burning tissue rich in mitochondria, primarily found in infants, that generates heat through non-shivering thermogenesis.

Fluid Balance in physiological terms

Fluid balance is the equilibrium of fluids entering and leaving the body, essential for physiological functions and health.

What is Sensation?

Sensation is the ability of an organism to detect stimuli via sensory receptors, allowing interaction and adaptation to the environment.

What are the protective functions of skin?

The skin acts as a barrier against pathogens, prevents dehydration, and protects against environmental harm.

How is Blood Supply critical for tissue health?

Blood supply delivers oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removes metabolic wastes, essential for maintaining tissue health.

What mechanisms are involved in Cellular Communication?

Cellular communication involves signaling pathways that enable cells to interact, exchange information, and respond to stimuli.

What is Nutrient Exchange?

Nutrient exchange is the transfer of nutrients and waste between tissues and blood vessels, vital for maintaining homeostasis in the body.

What defines Skeletal Muscle in terms of structure and function?

Skeletal muscle is striated muscle tissue attached to bones, under voluntary control, enabling movement through contraction.

What distinguishes Smooth Muscle from Skeletal Muscle?

Smooth muscle is involuntary and found in hollow organs, regulating automatic movements.

What is the set point for human body temperature in thermoregulation?

The set point for human body temperature is 37 ̊C ± 0.5.

What is the control center for thermoregulation?

The control center for thermoregulation is the hypothalamus, located in the central nervous system (CNS).

What role do thermoreceptors play in thermoregulation?

Thermoreceptors are sensors located in the integument that detect temperature changes and help regulate body temperature.

What are the responses when the body is too cold?

When the body is too cold, it minimizes heat loss to the environment and increases heat production through thermogenesis.

How does the body respond when it is too hot?

When too hot, the body maximizes heat loss to the environment.

What are the four mechanisms of heat exchange with the environment?

The four mechanisms of heat exchange are radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation.

How does blood contribute to thermoregulation?

Blood transports heat within the body, helping to distribute warmth and regulate temperature.

What happens to blood vessels when the body is too hot?

When the body is too hot, blood vessels near the dermal papillae dilate to maximize heat loss.

What is the role of eccrine sweat glands in thermoregulation?

Eccrine sweat glands are stimulated to maximize evaporative heat loss when the body is too hot.

What physiological changes occur when the body is too cold?

When too cold, arrector pili contract, blood vessels contract to minimize heat loss, and skeletal muscle contractions produce heat (shivering).

What unique mechanism do babies use to generate heat when too cold?

Babies increase cellular respiration in brown adipose tissue, releasing energy as heat during the electron transport chain instead of trapping it as ATP.

What are the major functions of the integumentary system?

The integumentary system provides protection, regulates temperature, facilitates sensation, synthesizes vitamin D, and helps with immune defense.

What are the major types of tissues that make up the integument?

The integument is primarily composed of epithelial tissue (epidermis), connective tissue (dermis), and adipose tissue (hypodermis).

What is the structure of the cutaneous membrane?

The cutaneous membrane consists of two primary layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer). The subcutaneous layer (hypodermis) lies beneath it.

What are the layers of the epidermis?

The epidermis includes five layers: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (only in thick skin), and stratum corneum.

What is the function of keratin in the skin?

Keratin provides strength and waterproofing to the skin, enhancing its protective barrier.

What role do melanocytes play in the skin?

Melanocytes produce melanin, contributing to skin pigmentation, offering protection against UV radiation, and influencing vitamin D production.

What is the significance of epidermal ridges and dermal papillae?

Epidermal ridges and dermal papillae enhance the grip of the skin and contribute to the formation of fingerprints.

What types of connective tissue are found in the dermis?

The dermis is composed of areolar tissue and dense irregular connective tissue, providing structural support and elasticity.

What are the primary functions of hair follicles?

Hair follicles are involved in hair production, healing epidermal wounds, and sites of exocrine secretion.

What distinguishes eccrine glands from apocrine glands?

Eccrine glands secrete sweat directly to the skin surface, while apocrine glands secrete fluid into hair follicles.

What is sebum and its role?

Sebum is an oily substance secreted by sebaceous glands that lubricates and waterproofs the skin and hair.