Medieval Literature Final Prep

Old English Runes

Futhark

Old English Period

religious themes, use of runes, oral tradition, emphasis on the heroic ideal, and unique literary devices like kennings and alliteration. Much of the literature, especially poetry, reflects the fusion of Germanic warrior culture with Christian beliefs. 

Kenning

a compound expression in Old English and Old Norse poetry with metaphorical meaning (ex: oar-steed = ship)

litotes

a form of understatement used for emphasis, typically by negating the opposite of what is meant. Instead of saying something is "good," one might say it's "not bad." This technique was common in Old English poetry, like in Beowulf (ex: When Beowulf defeats Grendel, the poem notes that the Geats "felt no regret for his suffering," which is a subtle way of expressing their joy at Grendel's defeat).

flyting

a ritualistic, poetic exchange of insults, often involving elaborate and witty verbal sparring

gnomic wisdom

a collection of short, memorable statements of traditional wisdom and morality, often expressed as proverbs or maxims

caesura

a significant pause within a line, typically occurring near the middle. This pause is crucial for the rhythm and structure of the verse, often separating two half-lines. Caesuras are not just random breaks; they are integral to the alliterative verse form and help create a distinct metrical pattern. 

alliterative verse form

a form where repeated consonant sounds at the beginning of words or stressed syllables create a rhythmic effect

Old English poetry characteristics

Use of kennings, elegy, alliterative verse form, caesura, litotes, and gnomic wisdom.

wergild

the monetary compensation paid to the family of a slain individual in Anglo-Saxon and Germanic societies. It was a system to prevent blood feuds by placing a value on a person's life, with the amount varying based on social status. 

peace weaver

a woman, typically of high status, who is married into a hostile tribe to establish or maintain peace between warring groups.

Beowulf

an epic poem written in Old English. One of the earliest surviving examples of English literature and is considered a foundational text for understanding the Anglo-Saxon period. The poem tells the story of a hero and his battles against monstrous creatures, showcasing themes of heroism, loyalty, and fate. 

wyrd

a noun that generally means fate, destiny, or personal destiny. A powerful concept in Anglo-Saxon culture and literature

comitatus

a body of well-born men attached to a leader, often a king or chieftain, through a duty of military service. Signifies the relationship between a lord and his retainers, especially in Germanic warrior culture where warbands were formed through oaths of fealty.

Four Eras of Medieval Lit

Old English

Anglo-Norman

Middle English

Early Modern English

timocracy

a system based on oaths, loyalty, land ownership, and martial skill

elegy

bemoaning a bygone time; nostalgic poetry

fatalism

belief that people’s destinies are predetermined by fate

Anglo-Saxon battle beasts

animals that appeared at the battlegrounds to feed on the dead; followed armies in expectation of battle

eagle, wolf, crow

scop

a man in Germanic culture responsible for remembering and reciting legends

ubi sunt

Latin for “Where are they?”

used in literature, particularly in medieval poetry, to express a sense of loss, nostalgia, and the fleeting nature of life. The phrase often introduces a series of rhetorical questions about the fate of those who came before, highlighting the transience of human existence and earthly achievements. 

Dream of the Rood

a dream-vision in which the cross tells the story of the crucifixion. Here Christ appears as a young hero-king, confident of victory as he rushes to mount the cross. By contrast, the cross itself (now stained with blood, now encrusted with gems in the manner of a reliquary) feels all the agony of crucifixion, and its physical pain is more than matched by the pain of its being forced to kill its young lord.

Bede

an English Benedictine monk, author, and scholar who lived from 672/673 to 735 AD. He is widely regarded as one of the most important writers of the Early Middle Ages and is often called the "Father of English History" for his seminal work, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People). 

Cædmon’s Hymn

a short Old English poem attributed to Cædmon, a supposedly illiterate and unmusical cow-herder who was, according to the Venerable Bede’s account in The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, miraculously empowered to sing in honor of God the Creator.

the oldest surviving poem in English

“The Wanderer”

an Old English poem preserved only in an anthology known as the Exeter Book. Conveys the meditations of a solitary exile on his past happiness as a member of his lord's band of retainers, his present hardships and the values of forbearance and faith in the heavenly Lord

“The Wife’s Lament”

an Old English poem from the Exeter Book that is primarily concerned with the evocation of the grief of the female speaker and with the representation of her state of despair. An exiled female speaker laments her forced separation from someone who may be her husband

“Wulf and Eadwacer”

a short Old English poem, found in the Exeter Book, known for its ambiguity and complexity. It depicts a woman's lament, possibly over a love triangle involving a lover and a figure, who may be her husband or captor. The poem's meaning is highly debated, with scholars offering various interpretations, including that it could be a riddle, a beast fable, or a representation of conflicting loyalties and emotional turmoil. 

Beowulf

a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel. This man kills Grendel with his bare hands, then kills Grendel's mother with a giant's sword that he found in her lair. He becomes a great king and eventually dies as an old man in a fight with a dragon.

Grendel

a monstrous, man-eating demon who terrorizes the Danish kingdom of King Hrothgar. He is depicted as a Cain-descended creature, an outcast and an embodiment of evil who attacks Heorot, Hrothgar's mead-hall, every night, killing and devouring the warriors. 

Grendel’s Mother

a mysterious humanoid creature. She enters the poem as an “avenger,” seeking redress for the death of her son at Beowulf’s hands. She lives in a cave beneath a dark, murky lake called a mere. This underwater lair is depicted as a perilous and mysterious place, filled with dangers and contrasting with the world above.

The dragon

a fire-breathing creature that acts as the final antagonist. It is awakened when a thief steals a jeweled cup from its hoard, prompting it to seek revenge by unleashing fiery destruction upon the Geats. Beowulf, now an aging king, confronts it, ultimately killing it but also suffering a fatal wound in the process. 

Unferth

a Danish warrior in Hrothgar's court who challenges Beowulf's boasts and heroism. He is portrayed as a foil to Beowulf, highlighting the latter's strengths through contrast.

Hrothgar

the aging king of the Danes, whose kingdom is terrorized by the monster Grendel. He is known for building the magnificent mead-hall Heorot, where his warriors gather and celebrate

Judith

a dramatic narrative retelling of the biblical Book of Judith, found in the Nowell Codex. It focuses on the story of a virtuous Jewish widow who, through courage and faith, saves her city from the Assyrian general Holofernes.

Judith

a brave, beautiful, and devout Hebrew woman who saves her city, Bethulia, by killing the Assyrian general Holofernes. She is portrayed as a heroic figure who embodies both Christian piety and Anglo-Saxon warrior ideals.

Holofernes

the Assyrian general who besieges the city of Bethulia. He is portrayed as a monstrous and debauched figure, the antithesis of the heroic and virtuous Judith. The poem focuses on Judith's bravery in entering his camp, seducing him, and then beheading him while he is drunk

Sermo Lupi ad Anglos

"Sermon of the Wolf to the English”

a powerful Old English sermon written by Wulfstan, a prominent church leader of the time. The sermon is a stark warning to the English people, blaming their moral failings for the hardships they are experiencing, especially the devastating Viking raids

The Ruin

an Old English elegy that reflects on the decay and desolation of a once-great Roman city, likely Bath, in Britain. The poem, found in the Exeter Book, contrasts the city's former glory with its present state of ruin, highlighting the power of time and fate to destroy even the most impressive human creations. 

Preface to The Pastoral Care

written by King Alfred the Great of Wessex

highlights his concern for the decline of learning and piety in England, particularly among the clergy. He emphasizes the importance of translating important texts, especially into the vernacular, to revive knowledge and improve pastoral care.

King Alfred

He is famous for successfully defending his kingdom of Wessex against Viking invasions, and for his legal, educational, and cultural reforms. He is the only English monarch known as "the Great". 

Lanval

Written by Marie de France in Anglo-Norman. It tells the story of a knight at King Arthur's court, who is overlooked by the king, wooed by a fairy lady, given all manner of gifts by her, and subsequently refuses the advances of Queen Guinevere.

Marie de France

a poet, likely born in France, who lived in England during the late 12th century. Wrote Lanval.

Medieval Romance genre conventions

a focus on chivalry, courtly love, and adventure, often featuring knights, quests, and supernatural elements. Also, extramarital shenanigans abound

Norman Invasion

happened in 1066 when William the Conqueror showed up

Geoffrey of Monmouth

a Catholic cleric from Wales and one of the major figures in the development of British historiography and the popularity of tales of King Arthur. Wrote the Historia Regum Britanniae in Latin

Wace (Robert Wace)

a 12th-century Norman poet and historian, known for his works in French verse. He's best known for the Roman de Brut, a history of Britain based on Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae.

Laȝamon

an English poet of the late 12th to early 13th century and author of the Brut, a notable work that was the first to present the legends of Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table in English (Early Middle English)

Authors of the English Histories

Geoffrey of Monmouth - Latin

Wace - Norman-French

Laȝamon - Early Middle English

Le Roman de Tristan

The oldest medieval romance. Tristan is wounded by a poisoned lance. As he lies dying, he calls desperately for Isolde. His wife discovers the Isolde for whom he is calling is not herself, but a princess in Cornwall. Isolde is duly sent for, and they watch the waters for the messenger’s ship. If Isolde is aboard, it will fly a white sail; if she has refused to come, the sail will be black. It is Isolde (Tristan’s wife) of the White Hands who spots the ship, flying a white flag; jealous and angry, she reports to Tristan that the sail is black. Tristan turns his face away, and dies. When Isolde arrives, she finds she is too late. The agony of this kills her, and she joins Tristan in death.

The Lady of the Fountain

A medieval romance that tells the story of Owain, a knight of King Arthur's court, who seeks to avenge his cousin and ends up marrying the Lady of the Fountain, Laudine. He neglects their marriage to pursue knightly adventures, leading to Laudine's rejection of him. Through a series of trials, including a relationship with a lion, Owain eventually wins back Laudine's forgiveness and returns to Arthur's court. 

mysticism

a period of Christian spirituality in England (roughly 1300-1450) that emphasized personal, experiential connection with the divine through contemplation and devotion

Julian of Norwich

an English anchoress of the Middle Ages. Her writings, now known as The Revelations of Divine Love, are the earliest surviving English-language works attributed to a woman. Believed that through God's mothering, we are drawn toward our own essential nature.

anchorite/anchoress

someone who, for religious reasons, withdraws from secular society to be able to lead an intensely prayer-oriented, ascetic, or Eucharist-focused life. Frequently considered to be a type of hermit, but they were required to take a vow of stability of place, opting for permanent enclosure in cells often attached to churches.

Mystery & morality plays

a form of vernacular drama popular in Europe during the Middle Ages, focusing on biblical stories and their representation in a theatrical setting. They evolved from liturgical dramas performed in churches and eventually moved into public spaces, often sponsored by guilds and performed on pageant wagons. 

York Play of the Crucifixion

a morality play that depicts the brutal reality of Jesus's crucifixion through the eyes of Roman soldiers, highlighting their mundane yet callous approach to the event. The soldiers, focused on the physical mechanics of the crucifixion, are oblivious to the divine significance of their actions, viewing it merely as a task to be completed. The play emphasizes the humanity of Christ, who willingly submits to his fate, and the contrast between the soldiers' perspective and the redemptive nature of Christ's sacrifice. 

Meir of Norwich

Meir ben Elijah of Norwich. A mediaeval English Jewish poet. He is acknowledged as the "chief representative of the poetic art among the Jews of medieval England." Portrays Jewish suffering in Medieval England.

Sir Orfeo

a Breton lai poem about a king in England who loses his wife Heurodis (i.e. Eurydice) to the fairy king, who steals her away from under an ympe-tre.

Breton lai

a short, rhymed tale of love and chivalry, often with supernatural or Celtic fairy-world motifs. It is a form of medieval French and English romance literature.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

one of the great Arthurian romances written by the anonymous Alliterative Master of the North. An epic poem in which the noble Sir Gawain plays the 'beheading game' with a mystery knight – setting him on course for a grand quest in which his virtues are sorely tested. Juxtaposes the Christian and Pagan realities of Medieval England.

Geoffrey Chaucer

often called the "father of English literature," was a 14th-century English author, poet, philosopher, and diplomat. He is best known for The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories told by pilgrims on their way to. Had close connections with John of Gaunt.

estates satire

a medieval literary genre that focuses on critiquing the traditional social classes or "estates" of feudal society. 

The General Prologue

the first part of The Canterbury Tales. It introduces the frame story, in which a group of pilgrims travelling to the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury agree to take part in a storytelling competition.

Nun’s Priest Tale

Part of The Canterbury Tales. Satirizes courtly love by putting chivalry in the setting of a barnyard. A poor widow's rooster, Chauntecleer, dreams of a fox attacking him. His favorite hen, Pertelote, dismisses the dream, but a fox named Russell appears, using flattery to lure Chauntecleer into singing with his eyes closed. The fox grabs Chauntecleer, but the rooster tricks him into boasting, allowing Chauntecleer to escape to a tree.

Chauntecleer

a proud and boastful rooster who is ultimately tricked by a fox.

Pertilote

Chauntecleer’s favorite hen and wife. She is presented as a practical and somewhat dismissive character, particularly when it comes to Chauntecleer's anxieties about a dream he has. 

The Pardoner’s Prologue

part of The Canterbury Tales. The Pardoner tells the other pilgrims up-front that what he cares about is money, not saving the souls of those he preaches to. He tells the others that he uses stories with morals to cheat people out of their money.

The Pardoner’s Tale

a story about three young men who seek to avenge their friend's death by finding and killing Death. They encounter an old man who directs them to a tree where they find not Death, but a pile of gold. Driven by greed, they plot to kill each other, ultimately poisoning and stabbing each other to death.

The Pardoner

a highly untrustworthy character. He presents himself as someone of ambiguous gender and sexual orientation, further challenging social norms. The narrator is not sure whether he is an effeminate homosexual or a eunuch. Wants to cash in on religion in any way he can, and he does this by selling fake relics.

The Wife of Bath (Alisoun)

has had five husbands. Promotes sexual freedom in women and thinks that women should rule over their husbands. Admits proudly to using her verbal and sexual power to bring her husbands to total submission.

The Wife of Bath Prologue

defends marriage against religious teachings that claim that it is inferior to celibacy, maintaining the association of marriage with sex but embracing a more modern perspective that sexual pleasure is a virtue and rejecting the idea that wives should always obey their husbands.

The Wife of Bath’s Tale

A lusty young knight in Arthur’s court is riding through the forest when he spies a beautiful maid and rapes her. The court is outraged, and according to law, the knight should be beheaded. The queen tells the knight that if, in a year’s time, he can answer the question of what women want, his life will be spared. He gets the answer from an old hag, who demands to be his wife. He accepts hesitantly. She then tells him she can remain ugly but faithful and virtuous; or she can be beautiful, but he must take his chances that she may stray. The knight thinks for a while, then says that the choice is hers, thus granting her sovereignty. Since the knight gives her the authority to choose for herself, the old woman says that she will be both beautiful and true

The Parliament of Fowls

a poem by Geoffrey Chaucer, believed to have been written around the late 14th century, that explores themes of love, choice, and social hierarchy through a whimsical dream narrative.

My Complaint

a deeply personal and introspective poem from the early 15th century where Hoccleve explores his mental illness and the social stigma it creates

Thomas Hoccleve

a prominent 15th-century English poet. Worked as a clerk in the Privy Seal office, copying manuscripts

John Gower

a prominent English poet, contemporary of Geoffrey Chaucer, known for his moral and political allegories

Philomene and Tereus

Philomela, after being raped and mutilated by her sister's (Progne) husband, Tereus, obtains her revenge and is transformed into a nightingale, a bird renowned for its song.

Morte d’Arthur

tells the story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, culminating in Arthur's death and the fall of his kingdom. The narrative explores themes of chivalry, loyalty, betrayal, and tragic fate, particularly through the relationships between Arthur, Guinevere, and Lancelot.

Thomas Mallory

an English writer, the author of Le Morte d'Arthur, the classic English-language chronicle of the Arthurian legend, compiled (and in most cases translated) from French sources.

The Cock and Jasper

tells the story of a rooster who finds a precious jewel while scratching in the dirt for food. The rooster, despite recognizing the jewel's beauty and value, ultimately rejects it, preferring instead a kernel of corn. The poem explores themes of practical wisdom versus superficial beauty and the contrast between animalistic needs and human aspirations. 

Sumer is icumen in

a medieval English round or rota of the mid-13th century. It is also known variously as the Summer Canon and the Cuckoo Song. Written in the Wessex dialect of Middle English.

Renaissance humanism

a significant intellectual and cultural movement during the Renaissance (roughly 14th-17th centuries) focused on the study of classical Greek and Roman texts and culture. It emphasized human potential, achievements, and the importance of individual development, shifting away from the medieval focus on religious dogma. 

Edmund Spenser

an English poet best known for The Faerie Queene, an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I.

The Faerie Queene

a lengthy allegorical work celebrating Queen Elizabeth I and exploring the nature of virtue. It follows the adventures of various knights, each embodying a specific virtue, as they serve the Faerie Queene and her realm.

blazon

a poetic device that catalogues the physical attributes of a subject, usually a female, often praising her beauty in detail.

pastoral

a genre that idealizes rural life, focusing on the relationship between humans and nature. The term derives from the Latin "pastor," meaning shepherd, and often features shepherds and idyllic landscapes.

“The Passionate Shepherd to His Love”

a pastoral poem by Christopher Marlowe where a shepherd attempts to woo his beloved with an idyllic vision of rural life. He promises her a life filled with the pleasures of nature, leisure, and sensual delights, all within a beautifully idealized countryside setting. The poem focuses on the present moment and the sensual joys of love and nature, painting a picture of an innocent and carefree existence

“Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd”

Walter Raleigh’s parody of Christopher Marlowe's "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love." The young woman (now described as a nymph) gives her a reply: an emphatic, resounding no! In her view, the shepherd's vision is totally unrealistic, conveniently glossing over how nothing—not youth, love, nor "pretty" gifts—can escape the destructive forces of time.

“The Bait”

draws inspiration from Christopher Marlowe's "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love." The speaker asks the object of his affection to come live with him—presumably to marry him and be his wife. He then discusses fish in pools and brooks as an indirect way of describing the allure of his beloved.

Christopher Marlowe

also known as Kit Marlowe, was an English playwright, poet, and translator of the Elizabethan era. With rumours about his spying background, coupled with his atheism and suspected homosexuality, he was a notorious character.

John Donne

a prominent English poet and cleric, recognized as a leading figure of the Metaphysical school. He's celebrated for his love lyrics, religious verse, and sermons, which often explore complex themes like love, death, and faith

Walter Raleigh

a prominent figure of the Elizabethan era, known for his explorations, colonization efforts in North America, and his status as a favorite of Queen Elizabeth I.

Epithalamion

a long, celebratory poem describing the speaker's wedding day to Elizabeth Boyle, blending classical mythology with Christian themes. It's structured around a 24-stanza format, each representing an hour of the day, and uses rich imagery and allusions to create a vivid picture of the wedding festivities, the bride's beauty, and the anticipation of the wedding night. The poem moves from the initial invocation of the Muses to the wedding ceremony, then to the celebration and finally to the consummation of the marriage. 

William Shakespeare

an English playwright, poet, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language. He is celebrated for his prolific output of plays and sonnets, which explore the full range of human emotions and conflicts.

“Sonnet 130”

Shakespeare challenges traditional love poetry by offering a realistic, unflattering portrayal of his mistress's appearance. Instead of comparing her to idealized beauty standards like sun-like eyes or coral-red lips, the speaker highlights her imperfections, yet ultimately declares that his love for her is as genuine and valuable as any falsely idealized love. 

“Sonnet 1" and “Sonnet 12”

Shakespeare. the poet reminds the young man that time and death will destroy even the fairest of living things. Only if they reproduce themselves will their beauty survive. The young man's refusal to beget a child is therefore self-destructive and wasteful.

“Sonnet 18”

"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?", explores the enduring nature of love and beauty through the power of poetry. The speaker ponders whether to compare his beloved to a summer's day, but ultimately concludes that the beloved's beauty surpasses the fleeting and sometimes harsh nature of summer. The poem suggests that the beloved's beauty will be preserved forever in the verses of the sonnet, granting them immortality through art. 

Sonnet 29

Shakespeare. The speaker bemoans his status as an outcast and failure but feels better upon thinking of his beloved.

Sonnet 35

Shakespeare grapples with his friend's wrongdoing, likely infidelity, by attempting to justify it through comparisons to natural imperfections, like roses with thorns. He recognizes he's corrupting himself by excusing the friend's actions, even though they cause him pain and rob him of happiness. The sonnet explores the internal conflict between love and hate, acknowledging the friend's "sensual fault" while also acting as his advocate and essentially becoming an accomplice. 

Sonnet 71

Shakespeare.

explores themes of mortality and remembrance, urging his beloved to forget him after his death. The speaker asks his lover not to mourn him excessively, suggesting that even the thought of him, or the reading of his verses, should be forgotten if it brings pain.

Sonnet 106

Shakespeare.

the speaker calls upon the glories of the past to illustrate the present. He perceives that the beauty of his lover has been prophesied by the pens of authors who are now long dead.