Chapter 34 Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War 1933-1941

Why did FDR decide tahat the US couldn’t stay uninvolved in foreign affairs?

war threats growing in Europe

What was teh 66 nation London Economic Conference like?

The sixty-six-nation London Economic Conference, meeting in summer 1933, showed how Roosevelt's early foreign policy focused on fixing the American economy. The delegates hoped to organize a coordinated international attack on the worldwide depression. They particularly wanted to stabilize currency values and exchange rates, which was essential for reviving world trade. Roosevelt first agreed to send an American delegation, including Secretary of State Cordell Hull. But the president soon began to doubt the conference's goals. He wanted to pursue policies at home to stimulate American recovery. An international agreement to maintain the dollar's value might limit his options, and Roosevelt was unwilling to sacrifice possible domestic recovery for international cooperation.

How did FDR ruin the London Conference?

While on vacation on a yacht along the New England coast, he sent a radio message to London, criticizing the conference for trying to stabilize currencies and basically announcing America's withdrawal. Roosevelt's surprise announcement ruined the London Conference. The delegates left empty-handed, amid complaints of American bad faith.

What were the effects of the failure of the London Conference?

Roosevelt's every-country-for-itself attitude pushed the world deeper into economic crisis. The failure of the London Conference also strengthened extreme nationalism, making international cooperation harder as the dangerous 1930s unfolded. Reflecting strong American isolationism, Roosevelt's action helped the power-hungry dictators who wanted to destroy world peace.

What was US withdrawal in Asia like?

. The Great Depression ended President McKinley's imperialistic dreams in the Far East. During hard times, American taxpayers wanted to get rid of the expensive Philippines. Labor groups demanded keeping out low-wage Filipino workers, and American sugar producers wanted to eliminate Philippine competition. Remembering earlier promises of freedom for the Philippines, Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934. The act provided for Philippine independence after twelve years of economic and political preparation—by 1946.

What was freedom to the Philipines actually about?

Americans were not so much giving freedom to the Philippines as freeing themselves from the Philippines. With selfish concern for their own interests, and seemingly ignoring the political situation in Asia, they planned to leave the Philippines to their fate while imposing unfair economic terms. American isolationists celebrated.

How did the Japanese react after seeing America give the Philipines their freedom?

in Tokyo, Japanese military leaders calculated they had little to fear from an inward-looking America that was abandoning its main possession in Asia.

What was one internationalist gesture FDR make?

e officially recognized the Soviet Union in 1933. Despite protests from anti-communist conservatives and Roman Catholics offended by the Kremlin's anti-religious policies, Roosevelt extended diplomatic recognition to the Bolshevik government.

Why FDR recognize the USSR?

He was partly motivated by hopes for trade with Soviet Russia and by the desire to strengthen the Soviet Union as a friendly counterweight to possible German power in Europe and Japanese power in Asia.

What were Ameircan relations with Latin America like during FDR’s presidency?

He followed the Good Neighbor policy. Together, Roosevelt's non-involvement in Europe and withdrawal from Asia, along with this friendly approach to his New World neighbors, suggested that the United States was giving up its ambition to be a world power and would instead be just a regional power, focused only on the Western Hemisphere.

What didn’t Roosevelt wnat to do with Latin America?

President Roosevelt made it clear early on that he opposed armed intervention, especially the aggressive approach added to the Monroe Doctrine by his cousin, Theodore Roosevelt.

What was the Good Neighbor Policy like?

The Good Neighbor Policy was a diplomatic approach initiated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s, aimed at improving relations between the United States and Latin American countries. This policy marked a shift from previous interventionist practices, promoting mutual respect, non-intervention, and cooperation among nations in the Americas. It significantly influenced U.S. foreign relations during a time of economic crisis and rising tensions leading up to World War II.

What had been the effects of military intervention in the Caribbean?

Old-fashioned military intervention in the Caribbean had produced only resentment, suspicion, and fear.

HOw did the GReat Depression affect foreign relations with Latin Amierca?

The Great Depression had reduced American economic aggression, as thousands of investors in Latin American securities lost money. There were now fewer dollars to be protected by the hated marines. With war-hungry dictators taking power in Europe and Asia, Roosevelt wanted to align Latin Americans to help defend the Western Hemisphere. Angry neighbors would be potential tools of overseas aggressors.

What was the 1933 Pan-American Conference like?

At the 1933 Pan-American Conference in Uruguay, the U.S. officially supported non-intervention.

How did FDR appraoch nonintervention?

U.S. marines left Haiti in 1934, and Cuba was freed from the strictest parts of the Platt Amendment, which had allowed American intervention, though the U.S. kept its naval base at Guantánamo. In 1936, Panama also gained more independence when the U.S. loosened its control.

Where did the Good Neighbor Policy face its biggest challenge?

The Good Neighbor policy, which focused on cooperation and non-intervention, faced its biggest challenge in Mexico. When Mexico took over American oil companies in 1938, U.S. investors pushed for military action to reclaim their property. Roosevelt refused, and a peaceful settlement was reached in 1941, even though the oil companies lost much of their investment.

What were the effects of Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor policy?

Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor policy was largely successful. By promoting friendship and respect, it improved relations with Latin America, even if it hurt some American investors. Roosevelt became highly respected in the region. The U.S. was no longer seen as a threat.

What was the New Deal’s reciprocal trade program?

Linked to the Good Neighbor policy was the New Deal’s reciprocal trade program, led by Secretary of State Cordell Hull. Hull believed that lowering tariffs would boost trade and reduce conflicts. In 1934, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, which allowed Roosevelt to lower tariffs by up to 50 percent if other countries did the same. This helped increase U.S. trade and improved relations with Latin America.

What did Hull do by 1939?

By 1939, Hull had negotiated trade deals with 21 countries, boosting U.S. foreign trade and strengthening ties with Latin America.

What shift did the Reciprocal Trade AGreements Act mark and what were its effects?

The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act marked a major shift from the high-tariff policies of the past and laid the groundwork for the free-trade system that developed after World War II, leading to a period of strong global economic growth.

What were the effects of WW1 on Europe?

After World War I, Europe faced chaos and economic depression, leading to the rise of totalitarian regimes.

What is totalitarianism?

totalitarianism refers to a political system where the state holds absolute power, controlling every aspect of public and private life, suppressing opposition, and enforcing conformity through propaganda and fear. It’s an extreme form of authoritarianism where the government seeks total control over all aspects of public and private life.

What is facism?

Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian system that focuses on extreme nationalism, a single powerful leader, and total state control. It crushes opposition, uses propaganda, and often blames problems on specific groups like minorities or political enemies. Fascist regimes glorify militarism, oppose communism, and prioritize the state over individual freedoms, often leading to violence and oppression.

What is militarism?

the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests.

What is Nazism?

Nazism, or National Socialism, is a totalitarian ideology that emerged in Germany during the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, racism, and the belief in the superiority of the Aryan race. It gained prominence under Adolf Hitler's leadership in the 1930s and led to aggressive expansionist policies that significantly influenced interwar foreign relations and contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

What is communism?

Communism is a political and economic ideology that advocates for a classless society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs. This ideology emerged as a response to capitalism, promoting the idea that capitalism leads to class struggle and inequality.

What were the effects of WWI on Europe?

After World War I, Europe faced chaos and economic depression, leading to the rise of totalitarian regimes. In these systems, the state controlled everything, and individual freedoms were crushed.

What type of governments did Italy, Germany, and the USSR have?

Italy: Facism. Germany: Nazism, which is a brutal form of fasicm centered on racial purity, militarism, and absolute state authority. USSR: a communist dictatorship

What was the USSR like?

The Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, became a brutal communist dictatorship. By 1936, Stalin began purging his government, executing hundreds of thousands and sending millions to labor camps.

What was Italy like?

In Italy, Benito Mussolini took power in 1922 as a Fascist dictator

What was Germany like?

in Germany, Adolf Hitler rose to power in 1933 using propaganda and lies. Hitler was especially dangerous because of his charisma, impulsiveness, and ability to exploit Germany’s post-World War I struggles, including the harsh Treaty of Versailles and the Great Depression.

What did HItler do in 1933?

Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations in 1933 and secretly began rearming, violating the Treaty of Versailles.

What is the Rome-Berlin Axis?

This was the alliance made between the leaders Mussolini and Hitler before WWII had occured (Rome: Italy - Mussolini, Berlin: Germany - Hitler) in 1936.

What type of government did Japan have?

It had a militaristic governement.

What happened to Japan after WWI?

Japan, feeling unfairly treated after World War I, became aggressive in Asia. In 1934, Japan left the Washington Naval Treaty and began building up its military.

How was the Tripartite Pact formed?

In 1940, Japan joined Germany and Italy in the Tripartite Pact, forming the Axis powers.

What revealed the weakness of the League of Nations’?

Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 showed the League of Nations’ weakness. Despite having the power to stop Italy by cutting off oil, the League did nothing, effectively sealing its own demise. This failure encouraged further aggression by dictators.

What was isolationism in the US like?

In the United States, isolationism grew stronger. Americans, still disillusioned by World War I and focused on the Great Depression, believed their geographic isolation protected them. They were wary of being dragged into another foreign conflict.

What was the Johnson Debt Default Act?

In 1934, Congress passed the Johnson Debt Default Act, preventing nations that hadn’t repaid World War I debts from borrowing more from the U.S.

What did Americans believe started wars?

During the 1930s, books and articles blamed arms manufacturers for causing wars, calling them "merchants of death." There was a widespread belief that removing profit from war could prevent future conflicts.

What were the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, 1937 and what were its effects?

These laws banned Americans from traveling on ships of warring nations, selling weapons, or making loans to belligerents. While intended to keep the U.S. out of war, these laws abandoned the traditional policy of freedom of the seas and ignored the growing threat of dictators. By treating aggressors and victims equally, the U.S. indirectly helped dictators like Hitler and Mussolini.

What was the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)?

Spanish rebels, who rose against the leftist republican government in Madrid, were led by the fascist General Francisco Franco. helped by Hitler and Mussolini, he tried to overthrow the established Loyalist government, which received smaller aid from the Soviet Union. This connection to communist Moscow cooled the natural sympathies many Americans, especially Roman Catholics, had for the republican Loyalists. But other Americans felt strongly about defending the struggling republic against Franco's fascist coup.

What was the Abraham LIncoln Brigade?

Americans who went to Spain to fight as volunteers to defend the republic against Franco’s fascit coup.

How did the Spanish Civil War expose the flaws of legistlated neutrality?

Washington maintained official relations with the Loyalist government. But Congress changed the existing neutrality laws to apply an arms embargo to both Loyalists and rebels. America thus watched from the sidelines while Franco, well supplied with arms and men by fellow dictators, destroyed Spain's republican government. The democracies, including the United States, were so determined to stay out of war that they helped condemn another democracy to death. By doing so, they further encouraged the dictators to take the dangerous path leading to World War II.

What happened to the US military?

Although determined to avoid war, America refused to build up its armed forces to deter aggressors. In fact, it allowed its navy to become relatively weaker.

What did Japan do to China?

In 1937 the Japanese military started a full invasion of China at the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing. This attack was like the opening act of World War II. Roosevelt refused to call the China situation an officially declared war, which let him avoid applying neutrality laws that would have cut off weapons to the Chinese who needed them. (Meanwhile, Japan could still buy lots of war supplies from the United States.)

What was FDR’s Quarantine Speech like and what were its effects?

In 1937, President Roosevelt gave his Quarantine Speech. Worried about recent aggression by Italy and Japan, he called for "positive endeavors" to "quarantine" the aggressors—probably meaning economic penalties. The speech caused protests from isolationists who feared this would lead to military action. Surprised, Roosevelt backed down and looked for less direct ways to control the dictators.

What did Hitler do in 1935?

In 1935 he openly broke the Treaty of Versailles by starting mandatory military service in Germany (the treaty restricted Germany’s military). He built up the German air force and ground forces into the most destructive military force yet seen.

What did Hitler do in 1936?

he boldly moved into the demilitarized German Rhineland, also against the treaty, while France and Britain hesitated. (basically the treaty said no German military forces there).

What did Hitler do to the Jews?

Hitler began persecuting and then killing the Jewish population in areas he controlled.

What did Hitler do in 1938?

Hitler took over German-speaking Austria without bloodshed. Democratic countries hoped this would satisfy his desire for conquest.

What area did Hitler want?

he started making threatening demands for the German-inhabited Sudetenland of neighboring Czechoslovakia.

How was Hitler’s wanting of the Sudetenland addressed?

A conference was finally held in Munich, Germany, in 1938. The Western European democracies, not ready for war, betrayed Czechoslovakia by agreeing to give Germany the Sudetenland. (known as the Munich Agreement) They hoped—along with the American people—that these concessions would satisfy Hitler's thirst for power and bring peace. Hitler had promised that the Sudetenland was the last territorial claim he had to make in Europe.

What was “Munich”?

The policy of appeasing dictators often referred to as "Munich," turned out to be a series of surrenders. In 1939, just six months after the Munich Agreement, Hitler broke his promises and seized the rest of Czechoslovakia.

Why did Hitler break the Munich Agreement?

Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union was key to the peace puzzle. In 1939, Britain and France were negotiating with Moscow, hoping to get a mutual-defense treaty that would stop Hitler. But mutual suspicions were too great. Then the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression treaty with Hitler in 1939. This Hitler-Stalin pact meant Hitler could now attack Poland and Western democracies without worrying about the Soviet Union attacking him from behind. It was clear that Stalin was planning to turn Hitler against Western democracies so they would destroy each other—leaving Stalin to take over Europe.

What happened to Poland and how did it start WWII?

Hitler demanded that neighboring Poland return areas taken from Germany after World War I. When Poland refused, he sent his forces into Poland in 1939. Britain and France, keeping their promises to Poland, declared war. They finally saw that continued appeasement was foolish. But they couldn't help Poland, and it fell to Hitler. Stalin, as secretly arranged in his pact with Hitler (Nazi-Soviet pact), joined in to take his share of former Russian Poland.

What were the causes of WWII?

The causes of World War II stemmed from the harsh Treaty of Versailles, which left Germany humiliated and economically struggling, fueling resentment. The rise of aggressive dictators like Hitler in Germany, Mussolini in Italy, and militarists in Japan led to expansionist policies. Western democracies, hoping to avoid war, appeased these dictators, which only emboldened them. The failure of the League of Nations to stop aggression, the Hitler-Stalin Pact allowing Hitler to invade Poland, and deep mistrust between nations all created a volatile environment. These factors combined to ignite the global conflict.

How did America react to the start of WWII?

President Roosevelt quickly issued the usual declarations of neutrality. Americans strongly opposed Nazis and Hitler; they hoped democracies would win; they believed good would triumph, as in 1918. But they were determined to stay out.

Why did neutrality become an issue?

. Poorly prepared Britain and France urgently needed American planes and weapons, but the Neutrality Act of 1937 prevented this. FDR called Congress to a session after Poland was invaded to consider lifting the arms embargo. A compromise law was then passed. The Neutrality Act of 1939 allowed European democracies to buy American war materials, but only on a "cash-and-carry basis." This meant they had to transport the weapons in their own ships, after paying cash. (America would avoid loans, war debts, and having American ships carrying arms being torpedoed.)

What neutrality law hurt China and why?

Roosevelt was also authorized to declare danger zones where American merchant ships couldn't go. This hurt China, which was blocked by the Japanese Navy

How did the banned areas in which American merchant ships couldn’t go favor democracies over dictators?

As British and French navies controlled the Atlantic, the European aggressors couldn't send ships to buy America's weapons.

How did the banned areas help America’s economy?

TOverseas demand for war goods brought a sharp economic upswing from the recession of 1937-1938 and eventually solved the decade-long unemployment crisis.

What was the “phony war?”

After Poland fell to Hitler in 1939, Europe entered a period called the "phony war," where little fighting occurred despite the ongoing conflict. During this time, Hitler quietly prepared to attack France, while the Soviet Union invaded Finland to gain territory. Finland was eventually overwhelmed by Soviet forces.

What ended the “phony war?”

It ended in 1940 becuase Hitler suddenly invaded Denmark and Norway. He then launched a massive attack on the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. Soon, Fance surrendered (though not before Mussolini’s Italy joined the attack to claim a share of the spoils). The British managed an evacuation from Dunkirk, saving most of their army. During this crisis, Winston Churchill became Britain’s prime minister.

How did Americans react to France’s collapse?

Britain was all that stood between Hitler and the end of constitutional government in Europe. If Britain fell, Hitler would have at his disposal the factories, shipyards, and slave labor of Western Europe. He might even get the powerful British fleet. This frightening possibility, which seemed to threaten American security, motivated the American people to a tremendous effort.

What did FDR do now that Hitler was threatening Western Europe?

He mae the nation build air fleets and a two-ocean navy that could also check Japan.

What was the peacetime draft like?

In 1940, Congress also passed the first peacetime draft in U.S. history, planning to train 1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves annually. This law was later expanded to meet the demands of a global war.

How was Latin America protected?

Latin America also needed protection as Germany’s conquest of the Netherlands, Denmark, and France raised concerns about their colonies in the Americas falling under German control. At the 1940 Havana Conference, the U.S. and its twenty New World neighbors agreed to jointly uphold the Monroe Doctrine, which opposed European interference in the Americas. Previously seen as a one-sided policy used by the U.S., the Monroe Doctrine was now a shared responsibility among twenty-one nations—at least in principle. This move aimed to strengthen collective defense in the Western Hemisphere.

What was anti-Semitism like after Hitler rose to power?

In Nazi Germany, violence against Jews escalated, culminating in Kristallnacht, the "Night of Broken Glass.”

What happened during Kristallnacht?

In 1939, encouraged by Nazi propaganda, mobs destroyed thousands of Jewish businesses and synagogues, killed Jews, and sent many to concentration camps. This marked a horrifying escalation of state-sponsored terror against Jews.

How did FDR react to the reports of Nazi genocide in 1942?

Roosevelt established the War Refugee Board, which saved thousands of Hungarian Jews from Auschwitz. However, the U.S. only admitted about 150,000 Jewish refugees during the war. By the end of World War II, the Holocaust had claimed the lives of 6 million Jews, a tragic testament to the world’s failure to act decisively against Hitler’s atrocities.

What dalyed Hitler’s invasion of Britain?

The Battle of Britain raged for months, with the Royal Air Force defending the country.

What was the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies?

IT was a group who supported aiding Britian and aruged that helping Britain was essential to keeping the war out of America.

What was the America First Commitee like?

They were isolationists who feared aiding Britian would drag the U.S. into another costly war.

Why did Britain need destroyers?

To counter German subs attacks. In 1940, Roosevelt bypassed Congress and agreed to transfer 50 old U.S. destroyers to Britain in exchange for 99-year leases on British bases in the Western Hemisphere. It was arguably a violation of neutrality.

What did public opinion in America increasingly favor?

Public opinion increasingly favored helping Britain, even at the risk of conflict.

What did the destroyers-forbases deal mark?

The destroyers-for-bases deal marked a significant shift in U.S. policy, signaling growing support for Britain and a move away from strict neutrality.

What was the presidential election of 1940 like?

Republicans nominated Wendell L. Willkie. The Republican platform condemned FDR's alleged dictatorship, as well as the costly and confusing New Deal. The Democrats nominated Roosevelt, challenging the sacred two-term tradition. FDR decided to run again because he believed his experienced leadership was essential to guide the U.S. through the global crisis of World War II. Roosevelt won and Democratic majorities and Congress stayed about the same.

Why did voters decide on Roosevelt?

Voters generally felt that if war came, the experienced hand of the proven leader was needed at the helm. Less appealing was the completely inexperienced hand of Willkie, who had never held public office.

What was the Lend-Lease Actof 1941?

FDR came up with a plan to lend or lease American weapons to the struggling democracies. When the war ended, the guns and tanks could be returned. Introduced after the election was over, the government said it would keep America out of the war, not pull it in. It would send unlimited weaposn to victims of aggression, keeping the war on their side of the Atlantic.

Who opposed the Lend-Lease Act?

Lend-lease was one of the most important laws ever passed by Congress; it was a direct challenge to the Axis dictators.

What did passing lend-lease mean?

Passing lend-lease was basically an economic declaration of war; a shooting declaration couldn't be far away. The bill meant abandoning any pretense of neutrality.

What was the side effect of lend-lease?

Lend-lease also had the side effect of preparing U.S. factories for full war production. This increased capacity helped save America when the war finally reached its shores.

How did Hitler view lend-lease?

Hitler saw lend-lease as an unofficial declaration of war. Until then Germany had avoided attacking U.S. ships, remembering America's fight against them in WWI. But after lend-lease passed, there was less reason to avoid angering the United States. In 1941, the Robin Moor, an unarmed American merchant ship, was torpedoed by a German submarine. The sinkings had begun, but on a limited scale.

What two major events happened in WWII before Pearl Harbor?

France fell in 1940, and Hitler invaded the Soviet Union in 1941

Why did HItler decide to invade the USSR?

Neither Hitler nor STalin trusted the other. They argued secretly about dividing territories, but Stalin resisted German control of the Balkans. Hitler decided to crush Stalin, take Soviet oil and resources, and then defeat Britain.

What was Hitler’s attack on the USSR like?

In 1941, Hitler launched an invaision of the USSR, which turned out to be a lucky break for the democratic world. The two dictators, Hitler and Stalin, were now fighting each other, but this only helped if the Soviets could hold out.

How did FDR keep the Soviet union in the fight against HItler?

He promised aid and made military supplies available to them.

What did the Soviet army do?

The Soviet army, combined with the harsh Russian winter, stopped Hitler’s advance at Moscow.

What was the Atlantic Conference like?

. With the Soviets still at risk, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill met secretly in 1941 for the Atlantic Conference. This was the first of many important meetings between them to discuss common problems, including Japan's threat in the Far East. The most memorable result was the eight-point Atlantic Charter, accepted by Roosevelt and Churchill and later endorsed by the Soviet Union.

What was the ATlantic charter like?

Inspired by Wilson’s Fourteen Points, the charter outlined hopes for a better post-war world. It emphasized individual rights over national interests, rejecting imperial expansion and supporting self-determination—letting people choose their own governments. It also called for disarmament and a new global security system, laying the groundwork for the United Nations. The charter became a foundation for future human rights advocacy. With this, America was no longer netural (although unofficially).

How did lend-lease supplies reach Engalnd?

Lend-lease supplies sent to Britain on British ships were at risk of being sunk by German submarines. To ensure the supplies reached England instead of ending up in the ocean, U.S. warships would need to escort them. oosevelt ordered the U.S. Navy to escort lend-lease shipments. This led to clashes with German submarines, even though Hitler had ordered his forces to only attack U.S. ships in self-defense.

What brought the US closer to outright war with Germany?

In 1941, the US destroyer destroyer Greer was attacked by a German submarine. Roosevelt responded by declaring a "shoot-on-sight" policy against German submarines. Escalation followed: the destroyer Kearny was damaged and the destroyer Reuben James was sunk

What happened to Japanese and US relations?

Japan’s situation in the Far East grew increasingly tense. Stuck in a costly and unwinnable war in China, Japan relied heavily on U.S. supplies like steel, oil, and fuel to keep its military running. However, American support for Japan was unpopular, and by late 1940, the U.S. began imposing embargoes. This left Japan with a tough choice: give in to U.S. demands or attack Southeast Asia for resources.

What did Japan decide to do?

The U.S. demanded Japan withdraw from China, but Japan, unwilling to lose face after years of war, chose to attack instead.

What did Japan do to America in 1941?

Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, destroying much of the U.S. Pacific fleet and killing over 2,400 Americans.

What was the effect of Pearl Harbor?

Congress declared war on Japan with near-unanimous support. Germany and Italy, Japan’s allies, declared war on the U.S, bringing America fully into World War II and officially ending its neutrality. The attack on Pearl Harbor united Americans, ending isolationist sentiment and rallying the nation for war.

Why did the US join the war?

While the attack on Pearl Harbor was the immediate trigger, , the U.S. had been moving toward conflict for years, driven by the need to support Britain, stop Japanese expansion, and oppose dictatorships. The war was no longer just about Pearl Harbor—it was about defending democracy and global stability.